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           9781412946520-Ch07  5/7/08  7:03 PM  Page 135
                                                                                                                     7
                                    The Sixteen Personality Factor
                                                               Questionnaire (16PF)
                                                                 Heather E.P. Cattell and Alan D. Mead
                           INTRODUCTION                                          research and is embedded in a well-established
                                                                                 theory of individual differences. This ques-
                           The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire          tionnaire’s extensive body of research
                           (16PF) is a comprehensive measure of normal-          stretches back over half a century, providing
                           range personality found to be effective in a          evidence of its utility in clinical, counseling,
                           variety of settings where an in-depth assess-         industrial-organizational, educational, and
                           ment of the whole person is needed. The 16PF          research settings (Cattell, R.B. et al., 1970;
                           traits, presented in Table 7.1, are the result of     H.E.P. Cattell and Schuerger, 2003; Conn and
                           years of factor-analytic research focused on          Rieke, 1994; Krug and Johns, 1990; Russell
                           discovering the basic structural elements of          and Karol, 2002). A conservative estimate of
                           personality (Cattell, R.B., 1957, 1973).              16PF research since 1974 includes more than 
                             In addition to discovering the sixteen              2,000 publications (Hofer and Eber, 2002).
                           normal-range personality traits for which the         Most studies have found the 16PF to be
                           instrument is named, these researchers iden-          among the top five most commonly used
                           tified the five broad dimensions – a variant of       normal-range instruments in both research 
                           the ‘Big Five’ factors (Cattell, R.B., 1957,          and practice (Butcher and Rouse, 1996;
                           1970). From the beginning, Cattell proposed           Piotrowski and Zalewski, 1993; Watkins et al.,
                           a multi-level, hierarchical structure of per-         1995). The measure is also widely used inter-
                           sonality: the second-order global measures            nationally, and since its inception has been
                           describe personality at a broader, conceptual         adapted into over 35 languages worldwide.
                           level, while the more precise primary factors
                           reveal the fine details and nuances that make
                           each person unique, and are more powerful
                           in predicting actual behavior. In addition, this      HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
                           factor-analytic structure includes a set of third-    16PF QUESTIONNAIRE
                           order factors, also discussed in this chapter.
                             Due to its scientific origins, the 16PF             The history of the 16PF Questionnaire 
                           Questionnaire has a long history of empirical         spans almost the entire history of standardized
             9781412946520-Ch07  5/7/08  7:03 PM  Page 136
                              136                 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERSONALITY THEORY AND ASSESSMENT
                              Table 7.1      16PF Scale Names and Descriptors
                              Descriptors of Low Range                         Primary Scales                  Descriptors of High Range
                              Reserved, Impersonal, Distant                    Warmth (A)                      Warm-hearted, Caring,Attentive To Others
                              Concrete, Lower Mental Capacity                  Reasoning (B)                   Abstract, Bright, Fast-Learner
                              Reactive,Affected By Feelings                    Emotional Stability (C)         Emotionally Stable,Adaptive, Mature
                              Deferential, Cooperative,Avoids Conflict         Dominance (E)                   Dominant, Forceful,Assertive
                              Serious, Restrained, Careful                     Liveliness (F)                  Enthusiastic,Animated, Spontaneous
                              Expedient, Nonconforming                         Rule-Consciousness (G)          Rule-Conscious, Dutiful
                              Shy,Timid,Threat-Sensitive                       Social Boldness (H)             Socially Bold,Venturesome,Thick-Skinned
                              Tough, Objective, Unsentimental                  Sensitivity (I)                 Sensitive,Aesthetic,Tender-Minded
                              Trusting, Unsuspecting,Accepting                 Vigilance (L)                   Vigilant, Suspicious, Skeptical,Wary
                              Practical, Grounded, Down-To-Earth               Abstractedness (M)              Abstracted, Imaginative, Idea-Oriented
                              Forthright, Genuine,Artless                      Privateness (N)                 Private, Discreet, Non-Disclosing
                              Self-Assured, Unworried, Complacent              Apprehension (O)                Apprehensive, Self-Doubting,Worried
                              Traditional,Attached To Familiar                 Openness to Change (Q1)         Open To Change, Experimenting
                              Group-Orientated,Affiliative                     Self-Reliance (Q2)              Self-Reliant, Solitary, Individualistic
                              Tolerates Disorder, Unexacting, Flexible         Perfectionism (Q3)              Perfectionistic, Organized, Self-Disciplined
                              Relaxed, Placid, Patient                         Tension (Q4)                    Tense, High Energy, Driven
                                                                               Global Scales
                              Introverted, Socially Inhibited                  Extraversion                    Extraverted, Socially Participating
                              Low Anxiety, Unperturbable                       Anxiety Neuroticism             High Anxiety, Perturbable
                              Receptive, Open-Minded, Intuitive                Tough-Mindedness                Tough-Minded, Resolute, Unempathic
                              Accommodating,Agreeable, Selfless                Independence                    Independent, Persuasive,Willful
                              Unrestrained, Follows Urges                      Self-Control                    Self-Controlled, Inhibits Urges
                              Adapted with permission from S.R. Conn and M.L. Rieke (1994). 16PF Fifth Edition Technical Manual. Champaign, IL: Institute
                              for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc.
                              personality measurement. Instead of being                        hydrogen and oxygen). For psychology to
                              developed to measure preconceived dimen-                         advance as a science, he felt it also needed
                              sions of interest to a particular author, the                    basic measurement techniques for personality.
                              instrument was developed from the unique                         Thus, through factor analysis – the powerful
                              perspective of a scientific quest to try to                      new tool for identifying underlying dimen-
                              discover the basic structural elements of                        sions behind complex phenomena – Cattell
                              personality.                                                     believed the basic dimensions of personality
                                  Raymond Cattell’s personality research                       could be discovered and then measured.
                              was based on his strong background in the                           Over several decades, Cattell and his col-
                              physical sciences; born in 1905, he witnessed                    leagues carried out a program of comprehen-
                              the first-hand awe-inspiring results of sci-                     sive, international research seeking a
                              ence, from electricity and telephones to auto-                   thorough, research-based map of normal per-
                              mobiles, airplanes, and medicine. He wanted                      sonality. They systematically measured the
                              to apply these scientific methods to the                         widest possible range of personality dimen-
                              uncharted domain of human personality with                       sions, believing that ‘all aspects of human 
                              the goal of discovering the basic elements of                    personality which are or have been of impor-
                              personality (much as the basic elements of the                   tance, interest, or utility have already become
                              physical world were discovered and organ-                        recorded in the substance of language’
                              ized into the periodic table). He believed that                  (Cattell, R.B., 1943: 483). They studied these
                              human characteristics such as creativity,                        traits in diverse populations, using three differ-
                              authoritarianism, altruism, or leadership skills                 ent methodologies (Cattell, R.B., 1973):
                              could be predicted from these fundamental                        observation of natural, in-situ life behavior or
                              personality traits (much as water was a                          L-data (e.g. academic grades, number of traffic
                              weighted combination of the elements of                          accidents, or social contacts); questionnaire 
          9781412946520-Ch07  5/7/08  7:03 PM  Page 137
                                            THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE (16PF)                     137
                         or Q-data from the self-report domain; and       research in each new country. Introduction of
                         objective behavior measured in standardized,     Web-based administration in 1999 allowed
                         experimental settings or T-data (e.g. number     international test-users easy access to admin-
                         of original solutions to problem presented,      istration, scoring, and reports in many differ-
                         responses to frustrations). Eventually, this     ent languages, using local norms
                         research resulted in the 16 unitary traits of
                         the 16PF Questionnaire shown in Table 7.1.
                           From the beginning, Cattell’s goal was to
                         investigate universal aspects of personality.    CATTELL’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY
                         Thus, his University of Illinois laboratory
                         included researchers from many different         Primary and secondary-level traits
                         countries who later continued their research
                         abroad. Ongoing collaborative research was       From its inception, the 16PF Questionnaire
                         carried out with colleagues around the world,    was a multi-level measure of personality
                         for example, in Japan (Akira Ishikawa and        based on Cattell’s factor-analytic theory
                         Bien Tsujioka), Germany (Kurt Pawlik and         (Cattell, R.B., 1933, 1946). Cattell and his
                         Klaus Schneewind), India (S. Kapoor), South      colleagues first discovered the primary traits,
                         Africa (Malcolm Coulter), England (Frank         which provide the most basic definition of
                         Warburton, Dennis Child), and Switzerland        individual personality differences. These
                         (Karl Delhees).                                  more specific primary traits are more power-
                           Since its first publication in 1949, there     ful in understanding and predicting the com-
                         have been four major revisions – the most        plexity of actual behavior (Ashton, 1998;
                         recent release being the 16PF fifth edition      Judge et al., 2002; Mershon and Gorsuch,
                         (Cattell, R.B. et al., 1993). The main goals of  1988; Paunonen and Ashton, 2001; Roberts
                         the latest revision were to develop updated,     et al., 2005).
                         refined item content and collect a large, new       Next, these researchers factor-analyzed the
                         norm sample. The item pool included the          primary traits themselves in order to investi-
                         best items from all five previous forms of       gate personality structure at a higher level.
                         the 16PF plus new items written by the test      From this, the broader ‘second-order’ or
                         authors and 16PF experts. Items were refined     global factors emerged – the original Big
                         in a four-stage, iterative process using         Five. These researchers found that the
                         large samples. The resulting instrument has      numerous primary traits consistently coa-
                         shorter, simpler items with updated lan-         lesced into these broad dimensions, each
                         guage, a more standardized answer format,        with its own independent focus and function
                         and has been reviewed for gender, cultural,      within personality, as described in Table 7.2.
                         and ethnic bias and ADA (Americans With          More recently, a similar set of Big Five
                         Disabilities Act) compliance. Psychometric       factors has been rediscovered by other
                         characteristics are improved, hand scoring is    researchers (Costa and McCrae, 1992a;
                         easier, and the standardization contains over    Goldberg, 1990), but using forced, orthogo-
                         10,000 people.                                   nal factor definitions. The five global factors
                           Because of its international origins, the      also have been found in factor analyses of a
                         16PF Questionnaire was quickly translated        wide range of current personality instruments
                         and adapted into many other languages.           (as Dr. Herb Eber, one of the original 16PF
                         Since its first publication in 1949, the instru- authors, used to say, ‘These broad factors
                         ment has been adapted into more than 35 lan-     validate across very different populations and
                         guages worldwide. These are not simply           methods because they are as big as elephants
                         translations, as many questionnaires provide,    and can be found in any large data set!’).
                         but careful cultural adaptations, involving         Thus, these five ‘second-order’ or global
                         new norms and reliability and validity           factors were found to define personality at a
     9781412946520-Ch07  5/7/08  7:03 PM  Page 138
                                         olerates 
                                         erfectionistic–T
                                     Lively–SeriousRule-conscious/ExpedientAbstracted–PracticalPdisorder
                             Self-Control/Lack of Restraint(F)(G)(M)(Q3)
                                       rusting
                                         Open-to Change/raditional
                                     Dominant–DeferentialBold–Shyigilant–TT
                                       V
                             Independence/Accommodation(E)(H)(L)(Q1)
                         actors              actors
                         Global F            Primary F
                                     arm–ReservedOpen-to-Change/raditional
                                     WSensitive–UnsentimentalAbstracted–PracticalT
                             ough-Mindedness/Receptivity
                             T       (A)(I)(M)(Q1)
                       ait` make-up
                                       rusting
                                          ense–Relaxed
                                     Emotionally Stable–Reactiveigilant–TApprehensive–Self-assuredT
                             High Anxiety/Low AnxietyV)
                                         O
                       s and the primary tr(C)(L)((Q4)
                       16PF global factororthright
                                     arm-Reservedate-F
                                     WLively-SeriousBold-ShyPrivSelf-Reliant–Group-oriented
                             Extraversion/Introversion
                       able 7.2      (A)(F)(H)(N)(Q2)
                       T
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