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9781412946520-Ch07 5/7/08 7:03 PM Page 135
7
The Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF)
Heather E.P. Cattell and Alan D. Mead
INTRODUCTION research and is embedded in a well-established
theory of individual differences. This ques-
The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire tionnaire’s extensive body of research
(16PF) is a comprehensive measure of normal- stretches back over half a century, providing
range personality found to be effective in a evidence of its utility in clinical, counseling,
variety of settings where an in-depth assess- industrial-organizational, educational, and
ment of the whole person is needed. The 16PF research settings (Cattell, R.B. et al., 1970;
traits, presented in Table 7.1, are the result of H.E.P. Cattell and Schuerger, 2003; Conn and
years of factor-analytic research focused on Rieke, 1994; Krug and Johns, 1990; Russell
discovering the basic structural elements of and Karol, 2002). A conservative estimate of
personality (Cattell, R.B., 1957, 1973). 16PF research since 1974 includes more than
In addition to discovering the sixteen 2,000 publications (Hofer and Eber, 2002).
normal-range personality traits for which the Most studies have found the 16PF to be
instrument is named, these researchers iden- among the top five most commonly used
tified the five broad dimensions – a variant of normal-range instruments in both research
the ‘Big Five’ factors (Cattell, R.B., 1957, and practice (Butcher and Rouse, 1996;
1970). From the beginning, Cattell proposed Piotrowski and Zalewski, 1993; Watkins et al.,
a multi-level, hierarchical structure of per- 1995). The measure is also widely used inter-
sonality: the second-order global measures nationally, and since its inception has been
describe personality at a broader, conceptual adapted into over 35 languages worldwide.
level, while the more precise primary factors
reveal the fine details and nuances that make
each person unique, and are more powerful
in predicting actual behavior. In addition, this HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE
factor-analytic structure includes a set of third- 16PF QUESTIONNAIRE
order factors, also discussed in this chapter.
Due to its scientific origins, the 16PF The history of the 16PF Questionnaire
Questionnaire has a long history of empirical spans almost the entire history of standardized
9781412946520-Ch07 5/7/08 7:03 PM Page 136
136 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF PERSONALITY THEORY AND ASSESSMENT
Table 7.1 16PF Scale Names and Descriptors
Descriptors of Low Range Primary Scales Descriptors of High Range
Reserved, Impersonal, Distant Warmth (A) Warm-hearted, Caring,Attentive To Others
Concrete, Lower Mental Capacity Reasoning (B) Abstract, Bright, Fast-Learner
Reactive,Affected By Feelings Emotional Stability (C) Emotionally Stable,Adaptive, Mature
Deferential, Cooperative,Avoids Conflict Dominance (E) Dominant, Forceful,Assertive
Serious, Restrained, Careful Liveliness (F) Enthusiastic,Animated, Spontaneous
Expedient, Nonconforming Rule-Consciousness (G) Rule-Conscious, Dutiful
Shy,Timid,Threat-Sensitive Social Boldness (H) Socially Bold,Venturesome,Thick-Skinned
Tough, Objective, Unsentimental Sensitivity (I) Sensitive,Aesthetic,Tender-Minded
Trusting, Unsuspecting,Accepting Vigilance (L) Vigilant, Suspicious, Skeptical,Wary
Practical, Grounded, Down-To-Earth Abstractedness (M) Abstracted, Imaginative, Idea-Oriented
Forthright, Genuine,Artless Privateness (N) Private, Discreet, Non-Disclosing
Self-Assured, Unworried, Complacent Apprehension (O) Apprehensive, Self-Doubting,Worried
Traditional,Attached To Familiar Openness to Change (Q1) Open To Change, Experimenting
Group-Orientated,Affiliative Self-Reliance (Q2) Self-Reliant, Solitary, Individualistic
Tolerates Disorder, Unexacting, Flexible Perfectionism (Q3) Perfectionistic, Organized, Self-Disciplined
Relaxed, Placid, Patient Tension (Q4) Tense, High Energy, Driven
Global Scales
Introverted, Socially Inhibited Extraversion Extraverted, Socially Participating
Low Anxiety, Unperturbable Anxiety Neuroticism High Anxiety, Perturbable
Receptive, Open-Minded, Intuitive Tough-Mindedness Tough-Minded, Resolute, Unempathic
Accommodating,Agreeable, Selfless Independence Independent, Persuasive,Willful
Unrestrained, Follows Urges Self-Control Self-Controlled, Inhibits Urges
Adapted with permission from S.R. Conn and M.L. Rieke (1994). 16PF Fifth Edition Technical Manual. Champaign, IL: Institute
for Personality and Ability Testing, Inc.
personality measurement. Instead of being hydrogen and oxygen). For psychology to
developed to measure preconceived dimen- advance as a science, he felt it also needed
sions of interest to a particular author, the basic measurement techniques for personality.
instrument was developed from the unique Thus, through factor analysis – the powerful
perspective of a scientific quest to try to new tool for identifying underlying dimen-
discover the basic structural elements of sions behind complex phenomena – Cattell
personality. believed the basic dimensions of personality
Raymond Cattell’s personality research could be discovered and then measured.
was based on his strong background in the Over several decades, Cattell and his col-
physical sciences; born in 1905, he witnessed leagues carried out a program of comprehen-
the first-hand awe-inspiring results of sci- sive, international research seeking a
ence, from electricity and telephones to auto- thorough, research-based map of normal per-
mobiles, airplanes, and medicine. He wanted sonality. They systematically measured the
to apply these scientific methods to the widest possible range of personality dimen-
uncharted domain of human personality with sions, believing that ‘all aspects of human
the goal of discovering the basic elements of personality which are or have been of impor-
personality (much as the basic elements of the tance, interest, or utility have already become
physical world were discovered and organ- recorded in the substance of language’
ized into the periodic table). He believed that (Cattell, R.B., 1943: 483). They studied these
human characteristics such as creativity, traits in diverse populations, using three differ-
authoritarianism, altruism, or leadership skills ent methodologies (Cattell, R.B., 1973):
could be predicted from these fundamental observation of natural, in-situ life behavior or
personality traits (much as water was a L-data (e.g. academic grades, number of traffic
weighted combination of the elements of accidents, or social contacts); questionnaire
9781412946520-Ch07 5/7/08 7:03 PM Page 137
THE SIXTEEN PERSONALITY FACTOR QUESTIONNAIRE (16PF) 137
or Q-data from the self-report domain; and research in each new country. Introduction of
objective behavior measured in standardized, Web-based administration in 1999 allowed
experimental settings or T-data (e.g. number international test-users easy access to admin-
of original solutions to problem presented, istration, scoring, and reports in many differ-
responses to frustrations). Eventually, this ent languages, using local norms
research resulted in the 16 unitary traits of
the 16PF Questionnaire shown in Table 7.1.
From the beginning, Cattell’s goal was to
investigate universal aspects of personality. CATTELL’S THEORY OF PERSONALITY
Thus, his University of Illinois laboratory
included researchers from many different Primary and secondary-level traits
countries who later continued their research
abroad. Ongoing collaborative research was From its inception, the 16PF Questionnaire
carried out with colleagues around the world, was a multi-level measure of personality
for example, in Japan (Akira Ishikawa and based on Cattell’s factor-analytic theory
Bien Tsujioka), Germany (Kurt Pawlik and (Cattell, R.B., 1933, 1946). Cattell and his
Klaus Schneewind), India (S. Kapoor), South colleagues first discovered the primary traits,
Africa (Malcolm Coulter), England (Frank which provide the most basic definition of
Warburton, Dennis Child), and Switzerland individual personality differences. These
(Karl Delhees). more specific primary traits are more power-
Since its first publication in 1949, there ful in understanding and predicting the com-
have been four major revisions – the most plexity of actual behavior (Ashton, 1998;
recent release being the 16PF fifth edition Judge et al., 2002; Mershon and Gorsuch,
(Cattell, R.B. et al., 1993). The main goals of 1988; Paunonen and Ashton, 2001; Roberts
the latest revision were to develop updated, et al., 2005).
refined item content and collect a large, new Next, these researchers factor-analyzed the
norm sample. The item pool included the primary traits themselves in order to investi-
best items from all five previous forms of gate personality structure at a higher level.
the 16PF plus new items written by the test From this, the broader ‘second-order’ or
authors and 16PF experts. Items were refined global factors emerged – the original Big
in a four-stage, iterative process using Five. These researchers found that the
large samples. The resulting instrument has numerous primary traits consistently coa-
shorter, simpler items with updated lan- lesced into these broad dimensions, each
guage, a more standardized answer format, with its own independent focus and function
and has been reviewed for gender, cultural, within personality, as described in Table 7.2.
and ethnic bias and ADA (Americans With More recently, a similar set of Big Five
Disabilities Act) compliance. Psychometric factors has been rediscovered by other
characteristics are improved, hand scoring is researchers (Costa and McCrae, 1992a;
easier, and the standardization contains over Goldberg, 1990), but using forced, orthogo-
10,000 people. nal factor definitions. The five global factors
Because of its international origins, the also have been found in factor analyses of a
16PF Questionnaire was quickly translated wide range of current personality instruments
and adapted into many other languages. (as Dr. Herb Eber, one of the original 16PF
Since its first publication in 1949, the instru- authors, used to say, ‘These broad factors
ment has been adapted into more than 35 lan- validate across very different populations and
guages worldwide. These are not simply methods because they are as big as elephants
translations, as many questionnaires provide, and can be found in any large data set!’).
but careful cultural adaptations, involving Thus, these five ‘second-order’ or global
new norms and reliability and validity factors were found to define personality at a
9781412946520-Ch07 5/7/08 7:03 PM Page 138
olerates
erfectionistic–T
Lively–SeriousRule-conscious/ExpedientAbstracted–PracticalPdisorder
Self-Control/Lack of Restraint(F)(G)(M)(Q3)
rusting
Open-to Change/raditional
Dominant–DeferentialBold–Shyigilant–TT
V
Independence/Accommodation(E)(H)(L)(Q1)
actors actors
Global F Primary F
arm–ReservedOpen-to-Change/raditional
WSensitive–UnsentimentalAbstracted–PracticalT
ough-Mindedness/Receptivity
T (A)(I)(M)(Q1)
ait` make-up
rusting
ense–Relaxed
Emotionally Stable–Reactiveigilant–TApprehensive–Self-assuredT
High Anxiety/Low AnxietyV)
O
s and the primary tr(C)(L)((Q4)
16PF global factororthright
arm-Reservedate-F
WLively-SeriousBold-ShyPrivSelf-Reliant–Group-oriented
Extraversion/Introversion
able 7.2 (A)(F)(H)(N)(Q2)
T
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