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COGNITIONANDEMOTION 0000, 00 (00), 119 Gratitude and depressive symptoms: The role of positive reframing and positive emotion 1 2 3 Nathaniel M. Lambert , Frank D. Fincham , and Tyler F. Stillman 1 School of Family Life, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, USA 2 Family and Child Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA 3 Department of Psychology, Southern Utah University, Cedar City, UT, USA Eight studies (N2,973) tested the theory that gratitude is related to fewer depressive symptoms through positive reframing and positive emotion. Study 1 found a direct path between gratitude and depressive symptoms. Studies 25 demonstrated that positive reframing mediated the relationship between gratitude and depressive symptoms. Studies 67 showed that positive emotion mediated the relationship between gratitude and depressive symptoms. Study 8 found that positive reframing and positive emotion simultaneously mediated the relationship between gratitude and depressive symptoms. In sum, these eight studies demonstrate that gratitude is related to fewer depressive symptoms, with positive reframing and positive emotion serving as mechanisms that account for this relationship. Keywords: Gratitude; Depressive symptoms; Positive reframing; Positive emotion; Broaden-and- build theory. The World Health Organization has identified of coherence (Lambert, Graham, Fincham, & depression as a serious and growing threat to well- Stillman, 2009), decreased materialism (Lambert, being (Murray & Lopez, 1996). Depression is one Fincham, Stillman, & Dean, 2009) and positive of the few psychological disorders that can be fatal, relationship functioning (Lambert, Clark, as 1015% of individuals with major depressive Durtschi, Fincham, & Graham, 2010). The objec- disorder eventually die by suicide (Maris, Berman, tive of the current studies was to examine the Maltsberger, & Yufit, 1992). In contrast, gratitude relationship between gratitude and depressive has been shown to have important implications for symptoms, and to identify the mechanisms by psychological well-being. In particular, gratitude which gratitude affects depressive symptoms. predicted lower depression (Wood, Maltby, Specifically, we proposed that positive reframing Gillett, Linley, & Joseph, 2008), as well as higher and positive emotion would mediate this relation- levels of prosocial behaviour (McCullough, ship. Our reasons for suspecting these indirect Kilpatrick, Emmons, & Larson, 2001), sense paths from gratitude to depressive symptoms stem Correspondence should be addressed to: Nathanial Lambert, Brigham Young University, 2065 JFSB, School of Family Life, Provo, UT 84602, USA. E-mail: natemlambert@gmail.com #2011Psychology Press, an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business 1 http://www.psypress.com/cogemotion DOI:10.1080/02699931.2011.595393 LAMBERT,FINCHAM,STILLMAN from Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory of those in the gratitude condition (compared to a positive emotions (Fredrickson, 1998). hassles condition or neutral control condition) reported more gratitude, optimism, life satisfac- Theories of positive emotion tion, and decreased negative affect (Froh, Sefick, &Emmons, 2008). Auseful theory in examining the role of a positive Many gratitude interventions have included a emotion such as state gratitude is the broaden- hassles condition and/or have not found gratitude and-build theory of positive emotions. The to produce an effect above and beyond the control. broaden-and-build theory asserts that negative For instance, Sheldon and Lyubomirsky (2006) emotions, like the fear experienced in a threaten- found that those who wrote about gratitude ing situation, narrow a person’s momentary (compared to a control condition in which thoughtaction repertoire to promote quick and participants wrote about their best possible self) decisive action such as ‘‘fight or flight’’. In did not produce greater positive affect among contrast, positive emotions broaden momentary participants during a four-week intervention. One thoughtaction repertoires, which widen the array purpose of the current studies was to examine the of thoughts that come to mind. For instance, effect of gratitude on depression using neutral or joy appears to broaden the thoughtaction reper- positive (rather than negative) control conditions toire by creating the urge to play, be creative, push to increase experimental rigour. the limits, and so on (Fredrickson, 2001). Like- Other non-intervention research has found wise, a positive emotion such as curiosity creates similarly positive effects of gratitude on mental the urge to explore, to take in new experiences and health, such as life satisfaction (McCullough, information, and to expand the self in the process. Emmons,&Tsang,2002),materialism (Lambert, Fredrickson argued that such broadening emo- Fincham et al., 2009), and sense of coherence tions build enduring personal resources such as (perception of life as meaningful, manageable, and social bonds, health, and knowledge. Support for comprehensible) over time (Lambert, Graham the broadening and building role of gratitude has et al., 2009). Watkins, Cruz, Holben, and Kolts been discussed extensively in the literature (e.g., (2008) requested that participants write about the Fredrickson, 2004; Wood & Tarrier, 2010). We positive consequences from an unresolved memory propose that the positive emotion of gratitude will (an unpleasant memory that may intrude into the broaden and build other positive emotions, pre- consciousness due to ‘‘unfinished business’’ asso- venting or ameliorating depressive symptoms. ciated with the memory, e.g., thinking of a recently lost wallet) that they felt they could Gratitude and mental health now be grateful for. Compared to control parti- cipants, those in the gratitude condition reported There is some evidence for gratitude building more memory closure, less intrusiveness of the other positive emotions. In their groundbreaking open memory, and less unpleasant emotional study, Emmons and McCullough (2003) em- impact from the memory. In summary, there is ployed daily diary methods to experimentally strong support for the view that gratitude is determine the effect of gratitude on mental health related to mental health but few studies have over time, and found that those assigned to write focused on a specific syndrome or disorder. about the things they were grateful for improved We selected depressive symptoms as our in mood, coping behaviours, and even in physical primary target of focus for examining the effect health symptoms compared to those who wrote of gratitude on mental health. Depression is about daily hassles or a neutral topic. This study defined in part as an absence of positive thoughts triggered widespread interest in the effect of and plans, as well as an inability to experience gratitude on mental health. A similar intervention positive emotions (National Institutes of Mental was conducted among teenagers and found that Health, 2009). We anticipated that gratitude 2 COGNITIONANDEMOTION,0000,00(00) GRATITUDEANDDEPRESSION could fill the positive-emotion void experienced Gratitude and depressive symptoms: The by depressed individuals, and tested a theoretical direct path model to determine how gratitude relates to As noted, there is some evidence that gratitude is depressive symptoms. The model includes a direct associated with fewer depressive symptoms negative relationship between gratitude and de- (Krause, 2007; Wood, Maltby, Gillett, et al., pressive symptoms, and two mediating mechan- 2008). Seligman, Steen, Park, and Peterson isms; positive reframing and positive emotion. (2005) tested the effect of gratitude on depressive symptoms experimentally simply by having parti- PATHSFROMGRATITUDETO cipants write and deliver a letter of gratitude to DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS: A someone to whom they were grateful. Those who CONCEPTUALMODEL participated in this simple act of gratitude expression reported fewer depressive symptoms Consistent with prior research, there should be a than control participants, lending credibility to direct link between gratitude and depressive the notion that gratitude can reduce depressive symptoms (Path A). The proposed indirect path symptoms. for the effect of gratitude on depressive symptoms Nonetheless, it is surprising how little research through positive reframing is Path B. Specifically, has been conducted on the link between gratitude we propose that individuals high in trait gratitude and depressive symptoms, given that such symp- will have a greater tendency to positively reframe toms can have serious consequences for mental negative or neutral situations, which triggers and physical health (e.g., suicide; Maris et al., within themselves a grateful state. Over time the 1992). accumulation of grateful states should either There is some empirical evidence indicating decrease depressive symptoms or prevent them that higher levels of gratitude correspond to fewer from increasing. Path C shows that gratitude depressive symptoms. Yet the means by which should generate positive emotions such as joy or gratitude is negatively related to depressive symp- happiness that are inimical to depressive toms have not been elucidated. We propose that symptoms and that these positive emotions the effects of gratitude on depressive symptoms will mediate the effect of gratitude on depres- occur via two indirect paths*positive reframing sive symptoms. Although depression and positive and positive emotion. emotions may coexist, the presence of positive emotions should prevent or attenuate the magni- Indirect path through positive reframing tude of depression. Our proposed conceptual Gratitude and positive reframing model (see Figure 1) illustrates these paths. We We propose that individuals higher in trait now describe each of these paths in greater detail. gratitude will be more inclined to positively reframe negative events or situations, which should elicit a grateful state and thereby reduce depressive symptoms. Positive reframing is to perceive something previously viewed as negative in a positive light. For example, people might come to think about a seemingly negative experi- ence as an opportunity, a chance to learn some- thing new, a chance to gain a new skill, or to deepen a relationship, and so on (Lambert, Graham et al., 2009). Positive reframing may be Figure 1. Theoretical model for the effect of gratitude on used as one method of achieving a grateful state. depressive symptoms. For example, consider an individual who is laid off COGNITIONANDEMOTION,0000,00(00) 3 LAMBERT,FINCHAM,STILLMAN from paid employment, but who reframes the sive symptoms insomuch as it builds other positive unfortunate situation as an unexpected opportu- emotions or states that are inimical to depres- nity to chart a new career path. Perceiving the sive symptoms, such as satisfaction with life or positive aspects of a negative situation, like positive affect. As noted, some have found a unemployment, should lead the individual to correlation between gratitude and life satisfaction perceive the situation in a new light that makes (McCullough et al., 2002) and participants it more meaningful and even valuable, thus primed with gratitude reported higher life satis- eliciting a grateful state and reducing depressive faction scores than control participants (Lambert, symptoms. Fincham et al., 2009). Furthermore, Emmons and There is some empirical evidence indicating a McCullough (2003) found that individuals who relationship between positive reframing and gra- kept a gratitude journal for 13 days reported titude. For example, gratitude has been associated higher positive affect than control participants. with making positive attributions (Wood, Maltby, Thus, there appears to be a relationship between Gillett et al., 2008; Wood, Maltby, Stewart, gratitude and positive emotion. Linley, & Joseph, 2008). Wood, Joseph, and Linley (2007) found that gratitude was positively Positive emotion and depressive symptoms correlated with a coping style called positive Depression is defined, in part, as an absence of reinterpretation and growth, which is conceptually positive thoughts and plans and an inability to similar to positive reframing. We propose that experience positive emotions (National Institutes individuals high in trait gratitude will be inclined of Mental Health, 2009). Even though positive to positively reframe negative or neutral events, emotions and depression are not simply two ends which will then elicit a grateful state, which, in of one continuum, positive emotions are at odds turn leads them to experience fewer depressive with a fundamental aspect of depression, namely symptoms (See Path B in Figure 1). low positive emotionality, defined as a disposi- tional tendency not to experience pleasurable Positive reframing and depressive symptoms emotional states (Watson, 2002). A chronic Several studies have established the link between disinclination to experience positive emotions is positive reframing and lower depression (e.g., a risk factor for developing a mood disorder such Kraft, Claiborn, & Dowd, 1985; Manne et al., as major depression; individuals who demon- 2003; Wang, Lambert, & Lambert, 2007). strated low positive emotionality initially were Also, there is some evidence that gratitude is more likely than others to experience major related to fewer depressive symptoms by encoura- depression months later (Clark, Watson, & ging people to positively reframe negative events. Mineka, 1994; Watson, 2000). Similarly, melan- Lambert, Grahametal. (2009) found that positive cholic temperament, which is chronic high levels reframing mediated the relationship between of negative emotionality and low levels of positive gratitude and sense of coherence, which has emotionality, contributes to depression and other some ties to depressive symptoms. However, mental disorders (Watson & Clark, 1995). positive reframing is likely not the only mechan- Mood disorders, unlike most other forms of mental illness, have well-defined cycles which ism in this relationship. We propose that positive fluctuate daily (symptoms are worst in the morn- emotion should also mediate the gratitude ing) and seasonally (as evidenced by seasonal depressive symptoms association. affect disorder). These same patterns are observed Indirect path through positive emotion for positive emotionality, with positive emotion- ality at its lowest in the morning and during Gratitude and positive emotion extended stretches of poor weather (Watson, Consistent with broaden-and-build theory 2002). It seems likely that the cyclical nature of (Fredrickson, 2001), gratitude may reduce depres- mooddisorders is at least partly attributable to the 4 COGNITIONANDEMOTION,0000,00(00)
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