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current biology magazine similar understanding will also allow primer of oyster reefs may also have been us to better characterize the impacts lost globally overfishing has been of rising levels ...

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                   Current Biology
                  Magazine
                   Similar understanding will also allow                     Primer                                                    of oyster reefs may also have been 
                   us to better characterize the impacts                                                                               lost globally. Overfishing has been 
                   of rising levels of anthropogenic                         Marine ecosystem  a persistent and growing problem 
                   noise. Particle motion sensors                                                                                      in marine environments, and loss of 
                   based on the model of a fi sh ear and                      services                                                  fisheries is also linked to declining 
                   dolphin-inspired sonar will provide                                                                                 water quality through the increasing 
                   opportunities for improved sensing                        Edward B. Barbier                                         occurrence of harmful algal blooms, 
                   technology for instrumentation,                                                                                     offshore pollution and oxygen 
                   autonomous underwater vehicles,                                                                                     depletion (hypoxia). Given the current 
                   and perhaps even augmented reality                        Coastal and marine environments can                       rapid loss of coastal and marine 
                   options for human divers to enhance                       begin up to 100 kilometers inland,                        environments, it is important to 
                   our direct experience of the underwater                   extend to the continental shelf, and                      understand what is at stake in terms 
                   acoustic world.                                           include ocean systems with waters                         of the foregone economic benefits 
                                                                             up to 50 meters in depth. The distinct                    and values as marine ecosystems 
                   FURTHER READING                                           marine ecosystems found in these                          disappear.
                                                                             environments include estuarine and                           In this Primer, I provide an overview 
                    Amorim, M.C.P., Vasconcelos, R.O., and Fonseca, P.J.     coastal wetlands, such as marshes                         of some of the key benefi ts, or 
                        (2015). Fish sounds and mate choice. In Sound        and mangroves, sand beaches and                           ‘services’, provided by marine 
                        Communication in Fishes F. Ladich, ed. (Vienna:      dunes, seagrass beds, and coral and                       ecosystems before going on to 
                        Springer), pp. 1–33.
                    Clark, C.W., Rice, A.N., Ponirakis, D.W., and Dugan,     oyster reefs.                                             discuss some of the key challenges 
                        P.J. (2011). Marine acoustic ecologies and              Marine ecosystems represent                            in quantifying and valuing marine 
                        acoustic habitats: concepts, metrics, and realities. 
                        J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 130, 2320–2320.                  some of the most heavily exploited                        ecosystem services. One important 
                    Erbe, C., Reichmuth, C., Cunningham, K., Lucke, K.,      ecosystems throughout the world.                          feature of these critical habitats is 
                        and Dooling, R. (2016). Communication masking        For example, coastal zones make                           that they are interconnected from the 
                        in marine mammals: A review and research 
                        strategy. Marine Poll. Bull. 103, 15–38.             up just 4% of the earth’s total land                      land to the ocean. Thus, the challenge 
                    Hawkins, A.D., Pembroke, A.E., and Popper, A.N.          area and 11% of the world’s oceans,                       for future research is to assess the 
                        (2015). Information gaps in understanding the 
                        effects of noise on fi shes and invertebrates. Rev.   yet they contain more than a third of                     benefi ts that arise from such an 
                        Fish Biol. Fish. 25, 39–64.                          the world’s population and account                        interconnected seascape.
                    Johnson, M., de Soto, N.A., and Madsen, P.T. (2009).     for 90% of the catch from marine 
                        Studying the behaviour and sensory ecology of 
                        marine mammals using acoustic recording tags: a      fisheries. However, human activities                      Marine ecosystem services
                        review. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 395, 55–73.            are now threatening many of the                           Collectively, the benefits provided 
                    Ladich, F., and Schulz-Mirbach, T. (2016). Diversity 
                        in fi sh auditory systems: one of the riddles of      world’s remaining marine ecosystems                       to humans by ecosystems are 
                        sensory biology. Front. Ecol. Evol. 4, 2–28.         and the benefits they provide. Due                        referred to as ecosystem services. 
                    Nedelec, S.L., Campbell, J., Radford, A.N., Simpson,     to coastal development, population                        Table 1 provides some examples of 
                        S.D., and Merchant, N.D. (2016). Particle motion: 
                        the missing link in underwater acoustic ecology.     growth, pollution and other human                         marine ecosystem services, which 
                        Methods Ecol. Evol. 7, 836–842.                      activities, 50% of salt marshes, 35%                      comprise various goods, services and 
                    Pacini, A.F., and Nachtigall, P.E. (2016). Hearing in 
                        whales and dolphins: relevance and limitations. In   of mangroves, 30% of coral reefs,                         cultural or other benefits. The goods 
                        The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II (New York:   and 29% of seagrasses have already                        produced by marine ecosystem 
                        Springer), pp. 801–807.                              been lost or degraded worldwide over                      services are the products obtained 
                    Parmentier, E., and Fine, M.L. (2016). Fish sound 
                        production: insights. In Vertebrate Sound            several decades. As much as 89%                           from these habitats, such as fish 
                        Production and Acoustic Communication 
                        (Springer International Publishing) pp. 19–49.
                    Radford, C.A., and Montgomery, J.C. (2016). Potential    Table 1. Examples of marine ecosystem services.
                        competitive dynamics of acoustic ecology. In 
                        The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II (New York:    Goods                                 Services                             Cultural benefi ts
                        Springer) pp. 895–900. 
                    Rodgers, P.H. and Cox, M. (1988). Underwater sound 
                        as a biological stimulus. In Sensory Biology of       •  Fish harvests                      •  Recreation and tourism            •  Carbon sequestration
                        Aquatic Animals, J. Atema, R.R. Fay, A.N. Popper      •  Wild plant and animal              • Transportation                     •  Bequest for future 
                        and W.N. Tavolga, eds. (New York: Springer-               resources                                                                  generations
                        Verlag), pp. 131–149.
                    Urick, R.J. (1983). Principles of Underwater Sound.       • Raw materials                       •  Scientifi c and educational        • Religious signifi cance
                        (New York: McGraw-Hill).                                                                       opportunities
                    van Oosterom, L., Montgomery, J.C., Jeffs, A.G., and 
                        Radford, C.A. (2016). Evidence for contact calls      • Genetic material                    • Flood control
                        in fi sh: conspecifi c vocalisations and ambient 
                        soundscape infl uence group cohesion in a 
                        nocturnal species. Sci. Rep. 6, 19098.                • Water                               • Storm protection
                    Versluis, M., Schmitz, B., von der Heydt, A., and 
                        Lohse, D. (2000). How snapping shrimp snap:                                                 • Pollution control
                        through cavitating bubbles. Science 289, 
                        2114–2117.                                                                                  •  Breeding and nursery 
                                                                                                                       habitats
                   Institute of Marine Science, University of                                                       •  Shoreline stabilization and 
                   Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland,                                                              erosion control
                   New Zealand. 
                   E-mail: j.montgomery@auckland.ac.nz (J.C.M);                                                     • Carbon sequestration
                   c.radford@auckland.ac.nz (C.A.R)
                                                                                                 Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017 © 2017 Elsevier Ltd.  R507
                                                                                                                                                                                            Current Biology
                                                                                                                                                                              Magazine
                                        Marine                                      Ecosystem                                 Economic                       and recreation. Landed fish catch 
                                    ecosystem                                        services                                   system                       can be easily observed and, in many 
                                                                                                                                                             cases, the fish are often marketed; 
                                     Functions                                    Goods                                                                      reliable prices therefore exist to 
                                 Biogeochemical cycling                           Fish harvests,                                                             indicate the value of the catch. 
                                 Flow of energy                                   water, genetic 
                                 Biological productivity           Ecological     material                                    Human well-                    Recreation and tourism values can 
                                 Niche, refuge, habitat            production                            Benefits                 being                      also be determined by estimating 
                                                                                  Services
                                                                                  Recreation, tourism,                                                       the willingness-to-pay of visitors to 
                                                                                  erosion control,                                                           unique marine habitats for specific 
                                     Structure                                    storm protection, 
                                 Biotic (living) marine                           pollution control,                                                         activities, such as coral reefs for 
                                 animal and plant                                 habitat provision                                                          recreational fishing or scuba diving, 
                                 communities                                      Cultural benefits                       Production of goods                bird watching in salt marshes, and 
                                 Abiotic (non-living)                             Religious, heritage,                         and services
                                 components of the                                bequest values                                                             tourist visits to marine parks.
                                 marine environment                                                                                                              However, valuing the services 
                                                                                                                                       Current Biology       associated with regulatory and 
                                                                                                                                                             habitat functions of marine 
                        Figure 1. How marine ecosystems generate economic benefi ts.                                                                          ecosystems is often more 
                        The structure and functioning of marine ecosystems lead to the ecological production of ecosys-                                      challenging. For one, these services, 
                        tem services. Some of these goods, services and cultural benefi ts directly impact human well-                                        such as storm protection, habitat 
                        being, whereas others indirectly impact the welfare of humans through supporting or protecting                                       support for offshore fisheries, and 
                        valuable economic assets and production activities.                                                                                  erosion or pollution control, are 
                                                                                                                                                             generally not marketed. Instead, 
                        harvests, wild plant and animal                                   on coastal property and communities.                               the value of these services needs 
                        resources, and abstracted water.                                  Finally, mangrove systems are                                      to be determined indirectly through 
                        In developing countries, some of                                  thought to prevent coastal erosion,                                their support for valuable production 
                        the more important uses of marine                                 thus preserving valuable agricultural                              activities or through the protection 
                        ecosystems tend to involve both                                   land and coastal properties.                                       of property and other important 
                        small-scale commercial and ‘informal’                                 Many unique marine habitats are                                economic assets from damages. 
                        economic activity to support the                                  considered to have important cultural                              This requires knowledge of how 
                        livelihoods of local populations, for                             and other benefits. That is, people                                the specific marine ecosystem 
                        example, through fishing, hunting,                                may benefit from the knowledge                                     functions and structure influence the 
                        fuelwood extraction, and so forth.                                that an ecosystem simply exists                                    ‘ecological production’ of a particular 
                           Recreation, tourism and water                                  or that it will be around for future                               service, such as storm protection 
                        transport are familiar services                                   generations to enjoy. These values                                 or habitat–fishery linkages, as well 
                        provided by many marine                                           may be particularly important among                                as the market conditions of the final 
                        ecosystems. Some unique estuarine,                                indigenous communities in rural                                    marketed commodity that is impacted 
                        coastal, and marine habitats are also                             areas, as they see their culture,                                  by the marine ecosystem service.
                        important stores of genetic material                              heritage and traditional knowledge                                     For example, one important 
                        and have educational and scientific                               closely intertwined with the                                       service of mangroves, marshes, 
                        research value as well. Coral reefs are                           surrounding environment. Even some                                 reefs and seagrass beds is that 
                        particularly important in this regard,                            of the poorest rural communities have                              they provide a coastal breeding 
                        as they are the most structurally                                 expressed interest in seeing their                                 and nursery habitat for offshore 
                        complex and taxonomically diverse                                 ‘way of life’ passed on to their heirs                             fisheries. As many fisheries are 
                        marine ecosystems, providing habitat                              and future generations.                                            exploited commercially, the inability 
                        for tens of thousands of associated                                                                                                  to control fishing access and the 
                        fishes and invertebrates.                                         Quantifying and valuing marine                                     presence of production subsidies and 
                           Marine ecosystems also provide                                 ecosystem services                                                 other market distortions can impact 
                        other important services, associated                              Quantifying the contributions, or                                  harvests, the price of fish sold and, 
                        with their regulatory and habitat                                 ‘benefits’, provided by ecosystems                                 ultimately, the estimated value of 
                        functions, such as pollution control,                             in terms of human welfare is often                                 coastal habitats in supporting these 
                        storm protection, flood control,                                  referred to as valuing ecosystem                                   fisheries. In addition, it is important 
                        habitat for species, and shoreline                                services. The biggest challenge                                    to determine how variations in the 
                        stabilization. For example, in the                                to quantifying and valuing marine                                  breeding and nursery habitat affect 
                        case of mangrove ecosystems, the                                  ecosystem services is the inadequate                               the biological production and growth 
                        mangrove swamps may serve as                                      knowledge available to link changes                                of the offshore fisheries and, in turn, 
                        a nursery and breeding habitat for                                in ecosystem structure and function                                both current and future harvests. 
                        many important fish species, some                                 to the production of valuable goods                                More than one marine habitat may 
                        of which may migrate as adults                                    and services (Figure 1).                                           also contribute to the ‘life cycle’ of 
                        to offshore fisheries. In addition,                                   This connection is more                                        the fishery, including larval dispersal 
                        mangroves can reduce the economic                                 straightforward for well-known goods                               and fish migration among the various 
                        damages inflicted by tropical storms                              and services, such as fish harvests                                habitats, which is important when 
                        R508 Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017
              Current Biology
             Magazine
              determining the contribution of each 
              habitat to the value of the fishery.                                      Marine habitat–fishery linkage
              Finally, there is evidence that the                                    Water pollution and sediment control
              nursery and breeding habitat function 
              of mangroves and marshes is greater                                             Storm protection
              at the seaward edge or fringe of the 
              coastal habitat than further inland.                                             Seagrass bed
              This means that the seaward edge                           Coral reef                xxxxxx
              may have more value in supporting           Open water                Sheltered bay  Seaward edge           Inland boundary
              offshore fisheries than habitats                                                                Mangrove landscape
              located away from the sea.                                                                                      Current Biology
                Marine ecosystems also have an 
              important role in protecting coastal      Figure 2. A mangrove–seagrass–coral reef seascape and marine ecosystem services.
              populations and property from             In a mangrove–seagrass–coral reef seascape, all three habitats interact to provide support for 
              flood and wind damage resulting           marine fi sheries, water pollution and sediment control, and storm protection. The connectivity 
              from periodic storms. For example,        among habitats mutually reinforces the support of marine fi sheries because adult fi sh use the 
              marshes, mangroves, beaches and           coastal habitats for breeding and nurseries and the resulting fry migrate to coral reef fi sheries. 
              dunes, seagrass beds, and reefs are       The sheltering effect of reefs may enhance the ability of seagrass beds, marshes, mangroves and 
              able to buffer shorelines from severe     other coastal habitats to attenuate waves and buffer winds. Water pollution and sediment control 
              weather, thus protecting coastal          by mangroves and seagrass beds may also protect coral reefs, thus enhancing their goods and 
              human populations, property, and          services.
              economic activities. In the case of 
              flood damage, the critical role of        and, in turn, how these services          nursery grounds for some marine 
              such ecosystems is attenuating and        directly and indirectly lead to           fisheries, whereas the bays sheltered 
              dissipating the wave surges caused        economic benefits.                        by coral reefs protect the coastal 
              by storms. Both the hydrodynamic                                                    ecosystems and their ability to act 
              properties of storm surges offshore       The marine seascape and                   as reproductive habitats. In addition, 
              and the presence and friction of          ecosystem services                        all three habitats interact to support 
              ecosystems and their vegetation           Marine ecosystems do not exist in         the life cycle underlying the marine 
              may be important in determining           isolation but are often interconnected    fisheries. Coral fisheries depend on 
              how well coastal properties and lives     across a continuous land–sea              the coastal habitats for breeding and 
              are protected from the surge once         interface, or seascape. Typical marine    nurseries and the resulting fry migrate 
              it lands onshore. In addition, the        habitats found in a seascape that         back to the reefs. Thus, the presence 
              protection against wind and wave          extends from the coast to open            of mangroves and seagrass beds 
              damage from coastal storm and             water are mangroves, salt marshes,        considerably enhances the biomass 
              surge events may vary significantly       seagrass meadows, coral reefs and         of coral reef fish communities.
              across marine habitats. For salt          oyster reefs, as the connectivity           Mangroves and seagrass beds 
              marshes and mangroves, wave               between and among these coastal           absorb waste water discharge 
              attenuation diminishes as the             and near-shore marine habitats is         into the sea and act as sinks for 
              habitat moves further inland (i.e.        the most pronounced. As a result          pollutants, sediment and other 
              as its distance from the shoreline        of nutrient fluxes and material           organic materials. This pollution and 
              increases). In the case of near-shore     exchange, including movements of          sediment control service not only 
              coral or oyster reefs and seagrasses,     marine fauna, these habitats provide      benefits coastal communities and 
              wave attenuation is a function of the     important goods and services both         their production activities but also 
              water depth above the reef or grass       individually and through functional       protects coral reefs, thus enhancing 
              bed, which also varies spatially.         linkages across the seascape.             their goods and services as well. In 
              Wave attenuation by sand beaches            Figure 2 illustrates how the            the case of storm protection, the 
              and dunes displays exponentially          interconnectivity among the marine        presence of coral reefs may enhance 
              increasing protection at higher           habitats comprising a mangrove–           the benefits provided by coastal 
              elevations or where dune vegetation       seagrass–coral reef seascape may          habitats. Coral reefs often shelter 
              cover is greatest.                        enhance three important ecosystem         coastal habitats by buffering oceanic 
                As progress is made in quantifying      services: habitat–fishery linkages;       waves and currents and slowing 
              and valuing marine ecosystem              water pollution and sediment control;     down periodic storm surges, and thus 
              services, we are improving our            and storm protection. How the three       support the ability of seagrass beds 
              understanding of the structure and        habitats interact is important in         and mangroves to attenuate waves 
              function of the marine ecosystems         determining the provision of these        and buffer winds.
              that provide such benefits. Further       services across the entire seascape         Taking into account the possible 
              progress in valuing critical marine       and the multiple economic benefits        connectivity of habitats comprising 
              ecosystem services is dependent on        provided.                                 the seascape clearly has implications 
              understanding how the ecological            For example, mangroves and              for both the valuation of benefits, 
              production of these services arises       seagrass beds serve as breeding and       such as storm and flood protection, 
                                                                                         Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017  R509
                                                                                                                       Current Biology
                                                                                                              Magazine
               habitat–fishery linkages and pollution    benefits are undervalued or even           of erosion, mitigation of temperature 
               control, and the management of            ignored in coastal and marine              variations, and protection from sea-
               coastal and near-shore marine             development decisions. It is critically    level rise.
               habitats. Because of seascape             important to assess the benefits             As we learn more about marine 
               connectivity, a decision to develop,      provided by these systems so that          ecosystem services and the 
               exploit or protect one part of the        we can better understand what is           ecological production underlying 
               seascape, such as a mangrove along        at stake as marine habitats are lost       them, we should expect our 
               the coast, could have important           and how to improve coastal and             assessment and valuation of these 
               implications for the habitat in the rest  marine management and policy.              benefits to evolve as well. Thus, this 
               of the seascape, such as a coral reef,    This article has sought to contribute      field will likely continue to provide 
               and thus the goods and services they      to the literature concerning these         fertile ground for research for some 
               provide. For example, mangroves           habitats by reviewing the current          years to come.
               and seagrass beds could become            state of knowledge about marine 
               more important as nursery habitat         ecosystem services, documenting            FURTHER READING
               when excessive fishing effort levels      the progress made as well as the 
               are applied to the reef because the       challenges remaining in the economic       Barbier, E.B., and Lee, K.D. (2014). Economics 
               mangroves can directly offset the         valuation of these services, and              of the marine seascape. Int. Rev. Environ. 
               negative impacts of fishing effort.       demonstrating how valuing marine              Resour. Econ. 7, 35–65. 
                                                                                                    Barbier, E.B. (2012). Progress and challenges 
               This suggests that managing fisheries     ecosystem services can influence              in valuing coastal and marine ecosystem 
               to take into account ecological           policy decisions concerning the               services. Rev. Environ. Econ. Pol. 6, 1–19.
               and economic synergies across an          management of these environments.          Barbier, E.B., Hacker, S.D., Kennedy, C., 
                                                                                                       Koch, E.W., Stier, A.C., and Silliman, B.R. 
               entire mangrove–seagrass–coral               Recent research has revealed               (2011). The value of estuarine and coastal 
               reef seascape would require four          how key functional linkages arising           ecosystem services. Ecol. Monogr. 81,169–
               additional considerations: the            from the connectivity across an               183.
                                                                                                    Bertness, M.D., Bruno, J.F., Silliman, B.R., 
               relative importance of mangrove           entire seascape of marine habitats            and Stachowicz, J.J., eds. (2014). Marine 
               and seagrass nursery sites to the         influences the provisioning of                Community Ecology and Conservation 
               coral reef and marine fisheries; the      ecosystem goods and services,                 (Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc). 
                                                                                                    McLeod, K., and Leslie, H., eds. (2009). 
               connectivity of individual reefs to the   and valuing these benefits across             Ecosystem-Based Management for the 
               coastal nurseries; areas of nursery       a seascape is providing new                   Oceans (Washington, DC: Island Press).
                                                                                                    Pittman, S.J., Kneib, R.T., and Simenstad, C.A. 
               habitat that have an unusually large      analytical, management and policy             (2011) Practicing coastal seascape ecology. 
               importance to specific reefs and          insights. Future research is likely to        Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 427,197–190.
               marine fisheries; and identification      focus on: estimating the multiple          Spalding, M.D., Ruffo, S., Lacambra, C., Meliane, 
                                                                                                       I., Hale L.Z., Shepard, C.C., and Beck, M.W. 
               of priority coastal sites for mangrove    benefits arising from seascapes with          (2014). The role of ecosystems in coastal 
               and seagrass bed restoration              interconnected habitats, such as              protection: Adapting to climate change and 
               projects.                                 estuaries and mangrove–seagrass–              coastal hazards. Ocean Coast. Manag. 90, 
                                                                                                       50–57.
                                                         coral reef systems; accounting for 
               Future trends in marine ecosystem         the spatial variability of ecosystem       Department of Economics & Finance, 
               services                                  services across various marine             University of Wyoming, College of Business, 
               Marine ecosystems are disappearing        habitats; and estimating lesser-known      Department 3985, 1000 E University 
               at a rapid rate and on an alarming        marine ecosystem services, such as         Avenue, Laramie, WY 82071, USA.
               scale worldwide. Yet many of their        reduction of wind damage, control          E-mail: EBarbier@uwyo.edu
               R510 Current Biology 27, R431–R510, June 5, 2017
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...Current biology magazine similar understanding will also allow primer of oyster reefs may have been us to better characterize the impacts lost globally overfishing has rising levels anthropogenic marine ecosystem a persistent and growing problem noise particle motion sensors in environments loss based on model sh ear services fisheries is linked declining dolphin inspired sonar provide water quality through increasing opportunities for improved sensing edward b barbier occurrence harmful algal blooms technology instrumentation offshore pollution oxygen autonomous underwater vehicles depletion hypoxia given perhaps even augmented reality coastal can rapid options human divers enhance begin up kilometers inland it important our direct experience extend continental shelf understand what at stake terms acoustic world include ocean systems with waters foregone economic benefits meters depth distinct values as ecosystems further reading found these disappear estuarine this i an overview amor...

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