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1
INTRODUCTION TO
GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
1. Definition and importance of geological engineering
2. The geological environment and its relation
with engineering
3. Geological factors and geotechnical problems
4. Methods and applications in geological engineering
5. Information sources in engineering geology
6. How this book is structured
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1.1 Definition and importance separate, specialized branch of the geological sciences. While
of geological engineeringof geological engineeringof geological engineering engineering development made rapid progress in the last
Copyrighted Copyrighted century, it was the catastrophic failure of several large engi-
neering works that pointed out the need of geological inves-
Geological engineeringGeological engineeringGeological engineering is the application of geological tigations applied to engineering. Among these events were
and engineering sciences to design and construction in civil, and engineering sciences to design and construction in civil, and engineering sciences to design and construction in civil, the failure of dams for geological reasons and their grave
mining and petrmining and petroleum engineering, and to the enviroleum engineering, and to the environment. onment. consequences, including the loss of hundreds of human lives,
mining and petroleum engineering, and to the environment.
The aim of this discipline is to ensurThe aim of this discipline is to ensurThe aim of this discipline is to ensure that the geological face that the geological face that the geological fac- as in the dam failures in San Francisco (California, 1928), at
tors which aftors which aftors which affect engineering activities arfect engineering activities arfect engineering activities are considere considere considered and ed and ed and Vajont (Italy, 1963) and at Malpasset (France, 1959), lands-
adequately interpradequately interpradequately interpreted, as well as to mitigate the conseeted, as well as to mitigate the conseeted, as well as to mitigate the conse- liding during the building of the Panama Canal in the early
quences of geological and envirquences of geological and envirquences of geological and environmental hazaronmental hazaronmental hazards.ds.ds. decades of the 20th century and the collapse of slopes on the
Although therAlthough therAlthough there are are are dife dife differferferences between ences between ences between geological Swedish railways in 1912.
engineering and engineering geologyengineering geologyengineering geology, in this book both The development of other related sciences, such as
terms arterms arterms are considere considere considered to be equivalent ed to be equivalent ed to be equivalent ((( soil mechanics and rock mechanics, was the basis for
Box 1.1BoxBoxBoxBox 1.11.1).
Material Material Material Material Material Material Material Material Material Material Material modern geotechnical engineering, where engi neering
Engineering geology emerged with the development Engineering geology emerged with the development Engineering geology emerged with the development Engineering geology emerged with the development Engineering geology emerged with the development
of large-scale civil engineering of large-scale civil engineering of large-scale civil engineering prprprojects ojects ojects and urban grand urban grand urban growth, owth, owth, geology provides solutions to construction problems
and by the mid 20th century had become established as a and by the mid 20th century had become established as a and by the mid 20th century had become established as a from a geological point of view (Figure 1.1). Geotechnical
ENGINEERING GEOLOGYENGINEERING GEOLOGY: AN APPROACH TO ENGINEERING FROM A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE: AN APPROACH TO ENGINEERING FROM A GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
- - - -
Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor Taylor
ENGINEERING GEOLOGYENGINEERING GEOLOGY
GEOLOGY ENGINEERING
GEOTECHNICAL FrancisFrancisFrancisFrancisFrancisFrancisFrancisFrancis
SOLUTIONS
Raised beach due to tectonic A viaduct under construction (Italy)A viaduct under construction (Italy)A viaduct under construction (Italy)
TERIALS AND PROCESSES processes (Greece)
REDUCING
RISKS AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
ENGINEERING PROJECTS AND WORKS
ENGINEERING MA
Rockfalls in basaltic cliffs (Madeira) A dam under construction (Spain)
Figure 1.1 Engineering geology, geology and engineering.
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INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING 5
Box 1.1
Geological engineering: education and professional practice
Education in geological engineering is based on a sound 10. What geologic and geotechnical criteria must be
knowledge of geological and engineering sciences, the kknowledge of geological and engineering sciences, the nowledge of geological and engineering sciences, the taken into account in land use and urban planning,
Copyrighted and to mitigate environmental impact.
mechanical behaviour of soils and rocks, and their response
mmechanical behaviour of soils and rechanical behaviour of soils and roocks, and their rcks, and their reesponse sponse
to changes imposed by engineering works. Site and ground
tto changes imposed by engineering works. Site and gro changes imposed by engineering works. Site and groound und
investigation methods to analyse and model geo-materials Applied geology, engineering geology
iinvestigation methods to analyse and model geo-materials nvestigation methods to analyse and model geo-materials
and geological praand geological prnd geological proocesses form an essential part of this ocesses form an essential part of this cesses form an essential part of this and geological engineering
discipline. — Applied geology or geology for engineers is the
Engineering geologists and geological engineers
EEngineering geologists and geological engineers ngineering geologists and geological engineers geology used in engineering practice. This is the
have a scientific and technical education, and a training
hhave a scientific and technical education, and a training ave a scientific and technical education, and a training branch of geology which deals with its applica-
applicable to the solution of the geological and enviraapplicable to the solution of the geological and envirpplicable to the solution of the geological and enviroononn- tion to the needs of civil engineering. It does not
mental problems which affect engineering, and therefore
mmental prental prooblems which afblems which afffect engineering, and therect engineering, and thereeforforee necessarily imply the use of engineering geological
they should be able to answer the following questions:
they should be able to answer the following questions: methods for the study and solution of geological
1. Where to site a civil engineering facility or industrial problems in engineering.
WWherWWherhheerreee to site a civil engineering facility or industrial e to site a civil engineering facility or industrial ttoo ssiittee aa cciivviill eennggiinneeeerriinngg ffaacciilliittyy oorr iinndduussttrriiaall
Material
plant so that it will be geologically secure and eco- — Engineering geology and geological engineering
pplant so that it will be geologically securlant so that it will be geologically securee and eco and eco
nomically feasible. are different from applied geology in that in addi-
2. How to select the alignment for communication or tion to geological knowledge, education and train-
HHow to select the alignment for communication or ow to select the alignment for communication or
transportation infrastructure to ensure favourable ing is required in the problems of the ground for
ttransportation infrastructurransportation infrastructuree to ensur to ensuree favourable favourable
geological conditions. engineering works, site investigation methods
3. How to assess that building foundations are geo- and the classification and behaviour of soils and
logically and geotechnically safe and economically rocks in relation to civil engineering; this field also
-
includes practical knowledge of soil mechanics,
feasible. iincludes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, iincludes practical knowledge of soil mechanics, nncclluuddeess pprraaccttiiccaall kknnoowwlleeddggee ooff ssooiill mmeecchhaanniiccss,,
rrock mechanics and hydrock mechanics and hydrogeology (Fookes, 1997).ogeology (Fookes, 1997).
4. How to excavate a slope that is both stable and — Taylor
economically feasible. EEngineering geologyEngineering geologyngineering geology and geological engineering
are equivalent disciplines, although in some coun-
5. How to excavate a tunnel or underground facility aarree eequivalent quivalent ddisciplines, although in isciplines, although in ssome counome coun
tries there is a difference depending on whether
so that it is stable. ttries therries theree is a dif is a diffferereence depending on whether nce depending on whether
the university where these courses are offered is
6. How to locate geological materials for dams, tthe university wherhe university wheree these courses ar these courses aree of offferereed is d is
embankments and road construction. ooriented morooriented mororiented morrriieenntteedd mmoorreee toware toware towar ttoowwaarrddds a geological training (engids a geological training (engids a geological training (engiss aa ggeeoollooggiiccaall ttrraaiinniinngg ((eennggii-
neering geology) or towards engineering (geologi-
nneering geology) or towarnneering geology) or towareeeerriinngg ggeeoollooggyy)) oorr ttoowwaarrddds engineering (geologids engineering (geologiss eennggiinneeeerriinngg ((ggeeoollooggii
7. The remedial measures and ground treatments &
cal engineering). An engineering geologist can be
needed to improve ground conditions and control ccal engineering). An engineering geologist can be ccal engineering). An engineering geologist can be aall eennggiinneeeerriinngg)).. AAnn eennggiinneeeerriinngg ggeeoollooggiisstt ccaann bbee
FrancisFrancisFrancis
defined as a specialist geologist (scientist) in con-
instability, seepages, settlements, and collapse. ddefined as a specialist geologist (scientist) in conefined as a specialist geologist (scientist) in con
8. The geological and geotechnical conditions required ttrast with geological (or geotechnical) engineers trast with geological (or geotechnical) engineers rast with geological (or geotechnical) engineers
who are trained as engineers with additional geo-
to store urban, toxic and radioactive wastes. wwho arho aree trained as engineers with additional geo trained as engineers with additional geo
9. How to prevent or mitigate geological hazards. logical knowledge (Turner, 2008).
engineering integrates ground engineering techniques ment. The inevitable confrontation between consequences
applied to foundations, reinforcement, support, ground of progress and geological processes, the uncontrollable
improvement and excavation, and the disciplines of soil sprawl of modern cities into geologically adverse areas and
mechanics, rock mechanics and engineering geology men- the damage caused by natural hazar ds can easily threaten the
tioned above. Recently, the term geo-engineering has been environment’s fragile balance.
coined to describe the field that deals with all aspects of engi- Nowadays, the need for geological studies of the
neering geology, rock mechanics, soil mechanics and geo- ground before initiating large-scale works is fully recog-
technical engineering (Bock nized, and such studies are an obligatory part of engineering
et al., 2004).
At the beginning of the 21st century, one of the top practice. This requirement also applies to works on a smaller
priority areas for engineering geology is sustainable develop- scale, but often with a more direct impact people’s daily lives,
7007TS-GONZALEZ-1003-01_CH01.indd 5 11/24/2010 10:34:22 PM
6 GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
1.8 Losses if preventative
measures are not applied
1.5 Losses if preventative
measures are applied
10 1.2 Cost of preventative
measures
0.90.90.9
Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted Copyrighted COST/BENEFIT RATIO
Euros × 10Euros × 10Euros × 10 0.60.60.6
LANDSLIDES 8.0
0.30.30.3 EARTHQUAKES 5.1
EROSION 1.4
0.0 FLOODS 1.8
FLOODSFLOODSFLOODS EAREAREARTHQUAKESTHQUAKESTHQUAKES LANDSLIDESLANDSLIDESLANDSLIDES EROSIONEROSIONEROSION
30 year projection, considering the maximum risk hypothesis.30 year projection, considering the maximum risk hypothesis.30 year projection, considering the maximum risk hypothesis.
Cost/benefit ratio: losses from geological hazards less losses if preventative measures are applied, divided by the cost of theCost/benefit ratio: losses from geological hazards less losses if preventative measures are applied, divided by the cost of theCost/benefit ratio: losses from geological hazards less losses if preventative measures are applied, divided by the cost of the
preventative measures.
Figure 1.2 Economic losses from geological hazards in Spain (IGME, 1987).
Economic losses frEconomic losses frEconomic losses frEconomic losses from geological hazarom geological hazarom geological hazarom geological hazards in Spain (IGME, 1987).ds in Spain (IGME, 1987).ds in Spain (IGME, 1987).ds in Spain (IGME, 1987).
Material on regions which are geologically unstable, modifying the
such as home and building construction, whersuch as home and building construction, whersuch as home and building construction, where geotechnical e geotechnical e geotechnical
surveys are also needed. geological processes or sometimes even triggering them.
The importance of engineering geology is particularly The search for harmonious solutions between the geologi-
The importance of engineering geology is particularly The importance of engineering geology is particularly
important in two main fields of activity. The first is engineering neering neering cal and the anthropogenic environments requires an under-
projects and related works where the ground constitutes standing of the factors which set them apart, in order to avoid
prprojects and rojects and related works wherelated works where the gre the ground constitutes ound constitutes
the foundation, excavation, storage or construction mate- erroneous interpretations. The most important dif ferentiating
the foundation, excavation, storage or construction matethe foundation, excavation, storage or construction mate errerrerrerroneous interproneous interproneous interproneous interpretations. The most important difetations. The most important difetations. The most important difetations. The most important dif
-
rial. Included in this field are the main types of infrastructure factors are:
factors arfactors are:e:
projects: buildings, hydraulic or maritime works, industrial Taylor
— Geological and engineering scale.
plants, mining installations, power stations, etc. The role —— Geological and engineering scale.Geological and engineering scale.
— Geological and anthropological time.
of engineering geology in these projects is fundamental to Geological and anthrGeological and anthropological time.opological time.
— Geological and engineering language.
ensuring safety and economic viability. The second field is Geological and engineering language.Geological and engineering language.
The study of geology begins with a spatial view of
the prevention, mitigation and control of geological hazards The study of geology begins with a spatial view of The study of geology begins with a spatial view of
Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of scales from the
and risks, and the management of environmental impact of Earth’Earth’Earth’Earth’s physical phenomena, on a range of s physical phenomena, on a range of s physical phenomena, on a range of s physical phenomena, on a range of
&
cosmic to the microscopic. Time is measured in millions of
public works and industrial, mining or urban activities. cosmic to the micrcosmic to the micrcosmic to the micrcosmic to the microscopic. oscopic. oscopic. oscopic.
years. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted
Both of these fields are of great importance to a years. In engineering, spatial and time scales aryears. In engineering, spatial and time scales aryears. In engineering, spatial and time scales aryears. In engineering, spatial and time scales are adjusted e adjusted e adjusted e adjusted
Francis
to the reach of human activities. Most geological processes,
country’s gross national product as they are directly related to to the rto the reach of human activities. Most geological preach of human activities. Most geological processes, ocesses,
such as orogenesis or lithogenesis, take place over millions of
the infrastructure, construction, mining and building sectors. such as orsuch as orogenesis or lithogenesis, take place over millions of ogenesis or lithogenesis, take place over millions of
years and shape such diverse phenomena as the properties
However, the impacts of geo-environmental hazards on years and shape such diverse phenomena as the pryears and shape such diverse phenomena as the properties operties
and characteristics of materials and the occurrence of seismic
society and the environment can be incalculable if no preven- and characteristics of materials and the occurrand characteristics of materials and the occurrence of seismic ence of seismic
or volcanic processes. Man as a species appeared in the Qua-
tive or control measures are taken (Figure 1.2). or volcanic pror volcanic processes. Man as a species appearocesses. Man as a species appeared in the Quaed in the Qua
ternary period, some 2 million years ago, quite recent com-
million years ago, quite rmillion years ago, quite recent comecent com
pared with the 4,600 million years of the life of the planet
1.2 The geological environment million years of the life of the planet million years of the life of the planet
Earth. However, human activity can dramatically affect spe-
and its relation with cific natural processes such as erosion, sedimentation, and
engineering even climate. Whether natural processes can be speeded up
or modified is one of the fundamental questions to consider
in engineering geology. Many of the geotechnical proper-
The geological environment is in continuous evolution through ties of geological materials, such as permeability, alterability,
processes affecting rock and soil materials and the natural strength or deformability, and processes such as dissolution,
environment as a whole. Anthropogenic environments, such subsidence or expansivity, may be substantially modified by
as cities, infrastructures or public works frequently intrude human action.
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