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Abstract
A significant proportion of
Kenya's tourism is wildlife-
2
based and 44,000 km ,
representing about eight Wildlife-based
percent of the country's
territory, has been set aside
for wildlife protection. This
has denied local communities Tourism in
access to invaluable herding
and agricultural resources
thereby creating conflicts
between tourism and the well- Kenya:
being of local people who also
suffer the destruction of life Land use conflicts and
and property from wildlife.
This paper probes government
policies on the sharing of government
benefits from tourism with
local communities in wildlife- compensation policies
protected areas. The analysis
could provide lessons for other
African countries where such over protected areas
conflicts are occurring. The
findings show that although
revenue-sharing has been
initiated in some places,
questions have been raised
whether it is the local
governments, communities or Isaac Sindiga
individual land-owners who
should be compensated. So
far, direct benefits to the
landowners have been
minimal. This has partly
motivated certain
communities to form wildlife Introduction
associations with the aim of
participating directly in This article examines government revenue-sharing policies and
tourism. This process is actions for rural people who support wildlife conservation in national
yielding some dividends but parks using the example of the administrative district of Kajiado and
requires to be guided carefully Narok, home of the renowned pastoral Maasai. It then discusses the
in order to involve the response of local communities to these actions. This is a first step to
majority of the local people in suggesting strategies which encourage tourism and wildlife
sharing in the benefits of development while at the same time conserving the resources
wildlife management. supporting tourism and generating benefits that sustain the welfare of
Ultimately, this should the people living adjacent to tourism destinations (Kenya, 1994). The
motivate them to conserve analysis could provide lessons for other parts of Africa where such
wildlife even in the face of conflicts obtain.
expanding human and
animal populations in In Kenya, exclusive wildlife reservations were carved out of lands
delicate ecologies. which were previously used by traditional pastoral peoples. These
national parks and reserves which are now managed by the Kenya
Wildlife Service (KWS) date back to the period immediately following
the Second World War (Table l). They denied local people invaluable
Dr Isaac Sindiga is Associate herding and agricultural resources and in some cases fishing rights
Professor and Head of Department thereby creating conflicts between the demands of Kenya's wildlife-
of Tourism, Moi University, Kenya. based tourism and the well-being of local people who also continue to
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 6, No. 2, DEC.'95 45
Table l: Kenya National and Marine Parks and Reserves. suffer the destruction of life and
Area Year PastoralAgricultural property. Kenya provides an
National Parks (Km2) gazetted District demand demand African example where there is
1. Sibiloi 1,570 1973 Marsabit Yes No “the clearest relationship
2. Central Island 5 1983 Turkana/ between the business of tourism,
Marsabit No No the demands of land of an ever
3. South Island 39 1983 Marsabit No No increasing population, and the
4. Malka Mari 876 1989 Mandera Yes No conservation of delicate ecologies”
5. Marsabit 360 - Marsabit Yes No (Economist Intelligence Unit,
6. Mount Elgon 169 1968 Trans Nzoia Yes Yes 1991, p. 64). Below, the paper
7. Saiwa Swamp 2 1974 Trans Nzoia No No discusses the contribution of
8. Meru 870 1966 Meru Yes No tourism to Kenya's economy. This
9. Kora 1,787 1989 Tana River Yes No is a prelude to explaining the
10. Mount Kenya 715 1989 Nyeri/Meru Yes Yes conflicts generated by wildlife-
11. Ndere Island 4 1986 Kisumu No No
a based tourism in Kenya.
12. Mau - - - Yes Yes
13. Lake Nakuru 188 1967 Nakuru Yes Yes
14. Aberdares 715 1950 Nyeri Yes Yes Tourism in Kenya’s economy
15. Ruma 120 1983 Homa Bay Yes Yes
16. Hell's Gate 68 1984 Nakuru Yes No Kenya's tourism industry is
17. Longonot 52 1983 Nakuru Yes Yes relatively well developed.
18. Fourteen Fallsa - - - No No Tourism is the country's leading
19. 0l Donyo Sabuk 18 1967 Machakos Yes No foreign exchange earner and a
20. Nairobi 117 1946 Nairobi Yes No significant portion of this tourism
21. Amboseli 392 1974 Kajiado Yes No is wildlife-based (Kenya, 1979,
22. Tsavo West 9,056 1948 Taita-Taveta Yes Yes 1989, 1994a). The tourism
23. Tsavo East 11,747 1948 Taita Taveta/ industry generated KSh.24,440
Kitui Yes Yes
24. Arabuko Sokoke 6 1991 Kilifi No Yes million (approximately US$421
25. Chyulu 471 1983 Machakos Yes Yes million) in earnings in 1993, and
Marine Parks KSh.28,100 million (US$484
million) in 1994 (Kenya, 1995).
26. Malindib 6 1968 Kilifi No No These earnings represent roughly
27. Watamub,c 10 1968 Kilifi No No 35% of the country's total foreign
b exchange earnings in a year.
28. Mombasa 10 1968 Mombasa No No The number of visitors rose
29. Kisiteb 28 1978 Kwale No No from 826.2 thousand in 1993 to
National Reserves 863.4 thousand in 1994 (Kenya,
1995). Many visitors go to the
30. Marsabit 1,198 1962 Marsabit Yes No country's national parks and
31. Nasolot 92 1979 West Pokot Yes No reserves for wildlife safari
32. South Turkana 1,091 1979 Turkana Yes No t o u r i s m (Table 2).
33. Losai 1,806 1976 Marsabit Yes No
34. Kerio Valleya - - - Yes No The wildlife component yields
35. Kamnarok 88 1983 Baringo No No substantial and increasing
36. Kakamega 4 1985 Kakamega Yes Yes economic returns. However, the
37. Lake Bogoria 107 1970 Baringo Yes No major proportion of tourism
38. Samburu 165 1963 Samburu Yes No expenditures remains with
39. Shaba 239 1974 Isiolo Yes No entrepreneurs elsewhere, far
40. Buffalo Springs 131 1963 Isiolo Yes No removed from communities
41. Bisanadi 606 1978 Isiolo Yes No
42. Rahole 1,270 1976 Garissa Yes No adjacent to the country's parks
43. North Kitui 745 1979 Kitui Yes No and reserves (Burnett & Conover,
44. Mwea 68 1976 Embu Yes Yes 1989; Sinclair, 1992; Sindiga,
45. Maasai Mara 1,510 1974 Narok Yes Yes 1984, 1994). Tourism may bring
46. South Kitui 1,833 1979 Kitui Yes No in “hard” currency and help a
47. Arawale 533 1974 Garissa Yes No nation to balance its accounts,
48. Boni 1,339 1976 Lamu Yes Yes however, the local consequences
49. Dodori 877 1976 Lamu Yes Yes of tourism development are often
50. Tana River Primate169 1976 Tana River Yes Yes neglected. For decades, wildlife's
51. Shimba Hills 192 1968 Kwale Yes Yes
impact on local people was
(cont.) ignored thereby generating
resentment to parks and
reserves, and to tourism (Akama,
Lant & Burnett, 1995; Olindo,
46 THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 6, No. 2, DEC.'95
Table 1 (cont.) and reserves are the basis of
Area Year Pastoral Kenya's thriving wildlife safari
Agricultural tourism. Two other major attrac-
National Parks (Km2) gazetted District demand demand tions are coastal beaches, and
Marine Reserves museums and archaeological
sites. Most tourists, however,
b,c
52. Kiunga 250 1979 Lamu No No combine wildlife safari with
53. Malindib 213 1968 Kilifi No No “sun, sand and sea” perhaps
b
54. Mombasa 200 1986 Mombasa No No because of the proximity of
55 Watamub,c 32 1968 Kilifi No Yes wildlife areas to the coast (Dieke,
b
56. Mpunguti 11 1968 Kwale No No 1991).
National Sanctuary Kenya's tourism developed on the
57. Maralal 6 1968 Samburu Yes No basis of up-country wildlife
conservation in national parks
Notes: a in process in gazettement and reserves. These wildlife
b there is demand for fishing on these areas by the local population areas became important tourist
c local demand for forest products exist in these places Sources: destinations especially for
Kenya Wildlife Service, 1990, p.vii; visitors from North America and
Nyeki, 1992, pp.90-l0l; the United Kingdom. Initially
field observations. most tourists came for big game
hunting, collection of trophies,
1991). Local communities products (Table 1). sport-fishing and generally
make demands to use park experiencing the wild in habitats
resources, for pastoral or Wildlife based tourism preserved in a near-natural state.
agricultural development; in In the contemporary time, game
addition, marine protected Kenya has 57 protected areas hunting is banned in Kenya and
areas are desired for fishing dispersed widely across the the tourists come to see the
and, in some places for forestry country (Table 1). These parks animals and make photographic
safaris. However, significant
Table 2: Number of Visitors to Selected Kenya National Parks and tourist traffic is going to the
Reserves, 1990-1994. Indian Ocean coast. This beach
'000s tourism draws most of its
a clientele from Western Europe,
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 mainly Germany, Italy, and
Nairobi 152.8 168.8 156.4 164.6 163.2 Switzerland.
Animal Orphanage 213.8 217.6 173.2 155.3 182.0
Amboseli 237.2 198.2 168.3 121.1 159.5 Presently, Kenya's parks and
Tsavo West 78.6 119.3 103.1 102.9 105.4 2
Tsavo East 127.7 135.9 125.5 135.8 132.4 reserves cover about 44,000 km
Aberdares 66.6 56.3 63.6 60.8 60.2 or about 8 percent of the
Buffalo Springs - - country's land area (KWS, 1990).
Lake Nakuru 174.2 174.4 139.8 178.6 164.3 Most protected areas are located
Maasai Mara 180.5 143.3 138.1 133.1 138.2 in the arid and semi-arid areas; a
Malindi Marine 35.6 33.0 44.2 41.1 39.4 zone that comprises over 87
Lake Bogoria 53.8 53.0 39.4 37.2 43.2 percent of the national land. This
Meru 11.1 9.1 7.1 7.4 7.9 region experiences low and
Shimba Hills 60.0 38.2 31.9 24.8 31.6 unreliable rainfall and very high
Mount Kenya 18.7 14.6 15.5 18.0 17.2 evapotranspiration rates. It
Samburu - - - 21.5 9.2 cannot support substantial
Kisite/Mpunguti 27.1 33.1 28.0 27.5 34.8 cultivation and resident com-
Mombasa Marine 29.1 54.6 57.8 43.3 48.0 munities practise one or another
Watamu Marine 20.5 22.0 27.0 31.7 32.1
Hell's Gate 31.1 41.3 34.2 47.4 44.9 form of pastoralism (Sindiga &
Impala Sanctuary, Kisumu - - - 59.1 5.5 Burnett, 1988).
Othersb 13.8 14.8 14.0 16.6 9.6
Total 1,532.2 1,518.5 1,367.1 1,927.8 1,428.6 The parks and reserves are at
varying levels of development.
Notes:a Provisional returns The tourism industry uses only
b Includes Mount Elgon, Ol-Donyo Sabuk, Marsabit, Saiwa Swamp, about two dozen of them (Table
Sibiloi, Ruma National Park, Mwea National Reserve, Central 2). The most visited protected
Island National Park, Nasolot National Reserve and Kakamega areas are Lake Nakuru, Maasai
National Reserve. Mara, Amboseli, Nairobi and
Sources: Kenya, l994b, p. 177; Kenya, 1995, p. 167 Tsavo. The visitor capacity in
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 6, No. 2, DEC.'95 47
both Maasai Mara and Amboseli Kenya. Taxes on tourist Marine parks are somewhat like
as well as several other protected expenditures, however, go to the national parks in both adminis-
areas has been exceeded given central government. Also, the tration and management. They
the current level of park KWS shares surplus park are restricted to the Indian
infrastructure. In fact, lodges revenues with local authorities Ocean coast and start at the
and camps have proliferated although this aspect has proved highest spring water mark and
especially in Amboseli and controversial; as will be shown extend to some distance into the
Maasai Mara. below under revenue sharing. sea. These parks are of varied
sizes. The marine national
Categories of protected areas In contrast, National Reserves reserves extend beyond the
in Kenya are created on any type of land. parks. They are managed by the
They are declared by the Kenya Wildlife Service. So far,
Wildlife conservation areas are government w i th the consen t local authorities have not been
designated as National Parks/ of the relevant local authority. involved in their management
Marine Parks and National Their objectives are similar to although they share in the
Reserves/Marine Reserves; in those of parks except that other revenues. Certain types of
addition, there are game land uses by local communities fishing are allowed in the marine
reserves. This categorisation and others may be specifically reserves.
implies a concept of the owner- and conditionally allowed.
s h i p and management of Finally, county council game The establishment of marine
wildlife conservation areas reserves are similar in many parks and reserves was intended
which is important for the later respects to national reserves. to conserve fragile marine eco-
discussion on policies for the The game reserves are declared systems. It was realised t h a t
distribution of benefits accruing and managed by county councils tourists had invaded coral
from wildlife. National parks are or any other local government gardens in the reefs to collect
essentially state lands which are (Kenya, 1975). Local authorities corals and shells thereby
managed exclusively for the collect gate fees from National exploiting ornamental marine life
conservation of fauna and flora Reserves; in all cases the KWS (Musyoki, 1992). In addition,
(Kenya, 1975, 1985a, 1989). collects licensing fees for tourism coral gardens had become
Among the objectives are to facilities located in protected important venues for snorkelling.
preserve these resources for areas. These activities could lead to the
aesthetic, scientific and cultural
reasons; to provide educational
and recreational facilities; to Table 3: Stakeholders in Wildlife Management in Kenya.
provide attractions for tourists
and serve as a major basis for the l. Local wildlife associations
economically profitable tourist 2. Individual landowners
industry; and to sustain such 3. Group landowners
other activities as commercial 4. Trustees of communally owned lands
photography and to act as water 5. Individual ranchers
catchments (Kenya, 1975). As 6. Government of Kenya
such, wildlife management in 7. Kenya Wildlife Service
Kenya has numerous stake- 8. Forestry Department
9. Fisheries Department
holders (Table 3). Certain 10. Geology and Mines Department
activities, in particular 11. Departments of Agriculture and Livestock Development
cultivation, pastoralism, timber 12. Department of Tourism
harvesting and consumptive 13. Kenya Tourist Development Corporation
wildlife utilisation (sport 14. Water Department
hunting, live animal capture, 15. District Development Committees
cropping for meat and trophies, 16. Local authorities especially county councils
and game ranching) are excluded 17. National parks and reserves
from national parks (Kenya, 18. Hoteliers and tour operators
19. Beach operators
1975, 1985a). Kenya banned 20. Women's groups
sport hunting in 1977 followed by 21. Community enterprises
an embargo on curio and animal 22. Game ranchers
parts in 1978. 23. Local non-governmental organisations
24. International non-governmental organisations
In terms of financial arrange- 25. International community
ments, all receipts by National 26. The scientific community
Parks from tourism and wildlife 27. The people of Kenya including generations unborn
activities go to the KWS which is 28. Entertainment industry
the custodian of all wildlife in Source: Modified from KWS, 1994, p.29.
48 THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 6, No. 2, DEC.'95
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