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Comprehensible Input
and Krashen’s theory
by Robert Patrick
ver the last 20 years in the United CI and the Latin Classroom: The last studies and preparations, I was not
OStates a curious and likely prepared to speak a word of Latin. I was
unpredictable movement has been two decades not prepared to actually read Latin. I had
evolving in the way that we teach Latin and never had the experience of thinking in
ancient Greek. A set of pedagogical 20 years ago, as a relatively new teacher of Latin. I never wrote a single personally
principles known as Comprehensible Input Latin I had a series of experiences that I communicative sentence in Latin. I was
(hereafter CI) has become a vehicle of can now identify as the beginning of my not ever given the chance to try and
change affecting our classrooms, our encounter with Comprehensible Input. I understand Latin spoken to me for the
professional organisations and our teacher was teaching by day and going back to purpose of communication. I had,
training programs as well as our University by night to work on a degree in through relentless self-imposed
relationships with and our positions in Spanish. Lady Fortune saw to it that I determination, mastered the ability to talk
world language organisations. These landed in a class of intermediate Spanish at length about the different uses of the
changes to the teaching of classical taught by a professor from India who had ablative case, of compound verbs that
languages were unpredictable because at studied all of his Spanish in Spain. He was require the dative, of verbs of
the outset CI represented a set of multilingual and, as I came to understand, remembering and forgetting that require
hypotheses and then principles that even spent a great deal of time reflecting on the genitive, of the difference in primary
their progenitor, Stephen Krashen, how he would deliver language learning to and secondary sequence. I could tell you
thought of as the way into acquiring his students. After my first class with him, what a Ciceronian period was and how
modern languages while teachers of he never spoke another word of English utterly overwhelming they could be to try
classical languages had constructed a to us (which by itself is not necessarily a to translate. And yes, translation: it would
fortified wall around themselves built on good teaching plan). At the same time, he be a few years before I came to realise that
the notion that Latin and ancient Greek ensured that no one in the room was lost translating Latin or Greek was not at all
were uniquely different from modern for lack of understanding. He spoke to us the same thing as reading those languages
languages and, therefore, required different entirely in Spanish in ways that we always which could actually be done, left to right,
approaches. In many iterations of this wall, understood. Every session included new word for word. Reading these languages
only a select cadre of students was thought vocabulary which he always helped us as they were written and understanding
(and easily demonstrated to be) capable of understand even while we were using them as such also creates deeper meaning
or even interested in mastering classical them. I would leave those classes, and, on and understanding in the reader who is
languages. This article will examine very the trip home, discover that I continued then drawn into the text. Translating or
briefly what this wave of change has been to hold internal dialogues in my mind in decoding classical languages is rather like
like in the Latin classrooms and institutions Spanish. I will never forget the night that demanding that the meaning of the text
of the US and examine in particular the this nagging, relentless question arose in come out and become something foreign
principles of Comprehensible Input: what my consciousness: why can I not teach to itself - the reader’s native language.
they propose, how they are being practised Latin this way? About this same time, the American
in Latin classrooms, and the obstacles they The answer to that question is a long Council on the Teaching of Foreign
encounter as well as opportunities they one which I will not belabour here except Languages (ACTFL) published its first
afford Latin programs which intend to through summary. I could not teach Latin edition of the Standards for World
survive and thrive in the coming years. that way because through all of my own Languages. In the course of attempting to
The Journal of Classics Teaching 20 (39) p.37-44 © The Classical Association 2019. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, distribution, and reproduction
in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 37
https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631019000060 Published online by Cambridge University Press
embrace what ACTFL was offering to us In the early 2000’s with all of these as someone who simply did not know his
via the four modes of language (listening, competing questions stirring in me, a Latin. If one did not know the basics of
reading, speaking and writing), I came confluence of things moved me on in this Latin grammar, the usual dismissal went,
across reference to Krashen’s work. It quest for Latin as a language that why should we listen to these theories that
would still be another five years before I communicates important messages. are meant for modern languages? Besides,
actually picked up his work and began to Despite my first horrible attempts to use Latin is different, and these things won’t
try to employ it in my teaching. Latin in my classroom, I persisted in the work in Latin. I lost count of the times
Meanwhile, I was determined to teach idea that I should be able to do that. I also that I was told that nothing I had to offer
Latin like my Spanish professor was came across the works of James Asher was worth the conversation because my
teaching me Spanish. I decided that the with Total Physical Response (1988), the Latin was bad. I came to understand that
problem was that I couldn’t speak Latin, hypotheses of Stephen Krashen, the accusing another colleague of bad Latin
so I attempted to focus on that. I created natural method used by Hans Oerburg, was the quickest and commonest defence
classroom scripts for myself which I and the so called ‘green bible’ of Ray and against new ideas in our community.
painstakingly created using the Latin I Seely. By reading their works I was using Despite this experience of shouting
knew and what was at the time the first total physical response to introduce new against the traditional winds, two of us
edition of Conversational Latin for Oral vocabulary, convincing administrators to decided to create a new listserv. John
Proficiency (Traupman, 1997). The day purchase Oerburg’s Lingua Latina as our Piazza (current Latin teacher at Berkley
came when I was ready (with the help of textbook (which had no English in it at High School) and I formed the Latin Best
cue cards hidden from student sight all all), attempting to tell and ask stories and Practices listserv (now found on
over the room) to speak to my students in circle words and phrases in my classroom Facebook) and quickly established it as a
Latin of all the classroom management just by trial and error (with no one to ask place to discuss ‘those second language
things that we did every day. That’s when I or model after in Latin). I had read the acquisition practices that help all kinds of
encountered what should have been the five hypotheses of Krashen. They made students make progress in Latin and
obvious obstacle: I had prepared myself sense on paper, but it would still be which continue to evolve into better
to speak Latin to them, but I had no idea several years before they began to be the practices as they are shared’.
how to prepare them to understand what framework for practices in my classroom. A little over ten years ago in 2008 two
I was trying to say. Needless to say, those In early 2004, I had the opportunity to colleagues (Rachel Ash and Stephanie
first attempts were anxiety-provoking in attend a one-day lecture with Stephen Molchen) and I offered what would be the
all of us, exhausting and sent me back to Krashen in Atlanta followed by a two-day first (and at the time we were sure the last)
ponder. Perhaps Latin was just too workshop the next year with Jason Fritze session at the Institute of the American
different. Perhaps Spanish was just so in the use of TPRS. In those two live and Classical League introducing
much easier that it could be taught in a interactive events, I found much Comprehensible Input. To an overflow
way that immediately communicated. affirmation for what I had been trying, crowd of about 100 Latin teachers, we
Perhaps I was wasting my time. Those some correctives for what I had offered a reading from Ovid’s
thoughts tortured me because at the same misunderstood and the encouragement Metamorphoses - the description of Envy:
time I found competing thoughts. Latin is (at least from modern language Met. II.760-782, 790-796. We asked
a human language. It has an incredibly colleagues) to persist. participants to read it to themselves,
long history of communicating what all Trying to talk about these things with saying that they had two minutes in which
of my own teachers and much of my Latin colleagues was another kind of to do so. We then asked them to turn to a
society claim are important, valuable experience altogether. These were still the partner and describe what they had just
perhaps even eternal messages for us to days of email listservs. They were a huge read. That discussion did not last long and
understand. If that’s so, how can I begin advantage to professional collaboration the level of conversation was very quiet.
to teach Latin as a language that over waiting for annual conferences to Over the course of the next hour, the
communicates? arrive for a few days of face to face three of us used a variety of CI strategies
The truth that confronted me each conversation (often dominated by the to deliver what we felt were the unknown
day was that all I was prepared to teach reading of papers and no real vocabulary of this less read text, and we
my students was the equivalent of the art conversation or collaborative reflection did it completely in Latin. At the end of
of autopsy. That required a dead language on best practices). The email listserv, the hour, we asked participants to read the
and students with the fortitude to cut however, left awful gaps in the ability to text again. Within minutes the room was
open the corpse each day. Too many of communicate. I boldly brought what I buzzing with conversation and
them were not willing to do that, and they was thinking, doing and trying to the excitement. There were even a few
were failing. At this rate, my program Latin community of teachers there, and it audible gasps. Latin teachers were actually
would itself die in a few years. That has was largely not welcome. I argued the able to read and understand a passage that
been true all across our educational theories as best I could. When asked for an hour before many had difficulty with.
landscape. Too many Latin students were examples, I would gladly offer up a recent We had wanted them to experience this
not capable of or interested in linguistic set of materials and experiences from my approach as much like students as
autopsy of a dead language. They either classroom. When a mistake was found in possible, and it seemed they did. What
went elsewhere for language study, or my Latin (regardless of whether it was a was the first thing that someone said to us
failed out of our programs before our typo or an actual gap in my knowledge) I afterwards? It consisted of a criticism of
programs were closed. was dismissed along with the new theories some of our pronunciation of a Latin
38 Comprehensible Input and Krashen’s theory
https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631019000060 Published online by Cambridge University Press
word or two (your stress was off in that students and five full-time Latin teachers. workshops and graduate courses to
word). The overwhelming conversation We have a high retention rate from year teachers and teachers in training. I will
for the next two days, though, consisted one to year four (40-60% depending on give reference to Krashen’s work and
of individuals confessing to us how little the year compared to a more traditional strongly urge those interested in CI to
of the text they had first been able to 1-10%), and a virtual zero failure rate. read his own words (all on his website for
read, and how much more they Our program now matches the school in free access at www.sdkrashen.com). I will
understood after the CI framed activities. every demographic including students then offer an example of what that may
Ten years later, Comprehensible who are being served by Special look like in a Latin classroom (remember,
Input is a reality that everyone is Education for various learning difficulties. there are dozens of practices developed
contending with. Scores of Latin teachers Recent enrolment numbers show that our and being developed) as well as potential
have fully embraced it. Many more are Special Education numbers have almost opportunities and obstacles that one may
taking their first steps with it. Thousands doubled in the last two years including encounter.
are participating in conversations on the 121 currently among our total enrolment
internet about it, collaborating and in Latin. The five of us who teach in the
sharing ideas as well as being willing to Latin program are clear that we would The Acquisition-Learning
ask questions about it. Even those who never go back to anything we have done
reject it now know that they must include prior to discovering the principles of Distinction Principle
it in their conversations, planning and Comprehensible Input.
structures when language pedagogy is As a Latin teacher, this first principle
part of the conversation. Sessions offered played more games with my own thinking
at the American Classical League’s annual Krashen’s Principles of about our language than perhaps any of
Summer Institute now routinely include the others. Ultimately, I realised that I had
many which are devoted to CI-related Comprehensible Input spent so many years ‘learning’ Latin while
topics, and this is true at regional and state ‘acquiring’ very little of it. So, what is this
level classics professional meetings as In what follows, I offer what I now distinction that Krashen draws (1982, pp
well. Conferences that used to be understand to be the principles of 10-11)? We must note up front that very
dismissed by Latin teachers as for modern Comprehensible Input that can be a often, especially among language teachers,
languages only now enjoy a healthy complete philosophical framing of learning language and acquiring language
contingent of Latin teachers who are pedagogical practices. Those are are used almost synonymously, and
present for and offering workshops on important distinctions. The principles learning a language is most often spoken
their use of second language acquisition provide an intellectual framework for the of among educators as if it were the same
principles which stem from or are in various (dozens) of practices which we as learning mathematics. This first
dialogue with Comprehensible Input. are creating, using, sharing and evolving principle begins a very different framing
Younger teachers who are joining the field in our classrooms. What I am calling the for us around what we do as teachers of
either have come from programs that principles of CI began as Krashen’s five language, even the Latin language. The
have included CI in their array of second hypotheses. Some time later, he offered a acquisition of language is unconscious,
language acquisition studies, or they have sixth. As I have heard Krashen himself implicit, picked up from meaningful,
heard from their in-field colleagues that say on numerous occasions, the difference interesting messages in the target
CI is something they must know about. in a hypothesis and a theory is not worth language. Acquiring language in these
That has created a new reality in which pressing. Both a hypothesis and a theory ways advances the student’s ability in the
novice as well as veteran classical language require evidence that supports their language. Language learning is a
teachers have in common a new claims, and there is plenty of support to consciously undertaken activity. Learning
willingness to learn how to teach Latin establish the claims of his hypotheses. On involves explicit knowledge about the way
and Greek differently from how they the other hand, if you wish to disagree language works. This kind of knowledge
themselves learned. with CI and have what you believe is one is useful, but only when it comes to
Before I turn to the principles of CI, instance of non-supporting evidence, editing language that one is already
I want to bring my own story up to the there is no amount of evidence that will capable of producing. Acquiring language
present. 14 years ago, I took the position convince you otherwise. My own and learning about the nuts and bolts
that I now hold in a large (3000+ experience and that of scores of Latin (grammar and syntax) of the language are
students) metropolitan high school. The teachers who have embraced CI is that ultimately both important, but they are
program was staffed by one Latin teacher not only are the principles of CI not the same and they are not
whom I replaced. There were 130 intellectually appealing and supported by interchangeable. Acquisition moves the
students in the program offering four research and studies, but we find that by student from novice to intermediate to
years of Latin. Despite the school’s engaging in pedagogical practices that advanced and above in the various
multicultural demographics, the Latin reflect them, we see significantly positive proficiencies of listening, reading,
program was made up entirely of white results in our classrooms. Latin becomes speaking and writing a language, but
and Asian students. By that time, I was accessible to all kinds of learners, and explicit learning of the grammar of a
fully committed to CI as the framework while failure rates plummet retention rates language is only useful after the student
for how I taught Latin. As I write this in soar. Below, I will briefly explain each of can produce the language. Traditional
late 2018, our program has grown to 700 the principles, i.e. how I explain them in forms of teaching second languages, in
Comprehensible Input and Krashen’s theory 39
https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631019000060 Published online by Cambridge University Press
particularly our own classical languages of They are not memorised. They are not teaching. When they want to know why we
Latin and Ancient Greek, have focused learned. They are acquired. We find in our said sellam instead of sella, we can within
on learning with very little, perhaps even own practices that beginning a new seconds explain that when the word is the
accidental occasions of acquisition. semester or school year with extensive object of an action or movement, we add
Traditional Latin classrooms and all reviews is simply not necessary. Students an m to make that clear. Latin works like
textbooks that I know of follow a will not forget what they have acquired. that. Period. That will satisfy. It will be the
grammar syllabus thereby establishing the The opportunities afforded by focus kind of explanation that they are both
learning approach over acquisition. We on acquisition are many. The example ready for and for which they really need no
begin chapter 1 in a textbook with a look above demonstrates several. We can focus prior knowledge. Down the road, after
at first declension nouns or first on the immediate environment, as we and they are capable of producing the
conjugation verbs or both because, well, students create it, and make that language to some degree, we may offer
they are first in the syllabus. This environment and what we do in it the them periods of explicit grammar
presumes that all students know what a immediate context for learning. Why instruction - simply for them to use while
noun and a verb are, what declension and should students have to wait until the editing their own work. After all, that’s
conjugation mean, and various other parts chapter on second declension to talk what grammars are for.
of speech. We relentlessly decry how about books, friends, pencils and pens, or
many students ‘do not know their until the chapter on the third declension
grammar in English’ so how are we to talk about mother, father, brothers and
expected to teach it to them in Latin. The sisters? With an acquisition focus, who The Natural Order Principle
simple fact is that they already speak, read, students are and where they gather for
write and understand English without study can become one with the language The principle of the Natural Order
knowing their grammar. How might an they are learning. Acquisition like this (Krashen, 1982, pp. 12-14) functions like
acquisition approach look on day one? focuses first on listening. I found early an operating system on a computer -
The Latin teacher has written these words and repeated surprising results from this. always there and running in the
with their English equivalents on the Students’ accuracy in pronunciation and background, perhaps gathering data for
board: sella, surge, i, ad, conside. The teacher spelling of Latin increased rapidly - far later use, but never quite obvious to the
pronounces each Latin word and what it more rapidly than when I explicitly taught user. As a hypothesis it states that there is
means in English. The teacher points to them the rules for pronunciation and an order in which people acquire a
the class, and then to surge. The teacher despite repeated remarks about the language. The order is different for
says: discipuli, surgite (and gestures for them phonetic quality of Latin (no silent letters, different languages, but we don’t know
to rise). They do, of course. Then, the no ambiguous sounds, etc.). Teaching for what that order is for most languages.
teacher says: discipuli, considite (and gestures acquisition moves the experience of Even if we did know, creating a syllabus
for them to sit - which they do). The learning from facing into a page to a based on the natural order would be
teacher then calls on one after another face-to-face experience–which is the most ineffective because then we would be
student, points to the appropriate words basic form of human communication. tempted to teach for learning rather than
and slowly tells the student: surge. i ad There will be potential obstacles for a acquisition. The important thing for the
sellam. conside. surge. i ad sellam tuam. conside. Latin teacher who shifts from a learning to teacher to understand from this principle
Latin teachers will notice that I have an acquisition focus. It presumes on the (and keep running in the background of
not called for explaining the imperative, front end that Latin teachers are prepared what we do) is that a student will not
or the differences in singular and plural to speak Latin in a meaningful way with acquire a feature of the language until
commands, or that I have used the students. For many, this is not true even in he/she is ready. In the meantime, the
accusative case as object of the the most rudimentary level. I once had a teacher’s focus must be on giving students
preposition while only listing it on the conversation with a veteran Latin teacher more understandable input. Because
board in the nominative. I have used none who, upon hearing me present on research has not been done on most
of those words with students. What this CI-based Latin instruction, said that while languages to determine the natural order
example models is communicating to he could teach students about the of acquisition, we as teachers are simply
students with understandable messages in imperative mood with ease, he had no idea invited to observe. My own observation
Latin. In short order of time (within the what to do with them communicatively. over the years is that students in Latin
same class period) the teacher can add Latin teachers will need support to fill in seem to be slower to acquire noun
other nouns and verbs in whatever their own lack of the acquisition of the endings than they do verb endings.
declension and conjugations desired so language (that’s another article). Many will Despite the fact that I as a student was
that by the end of the period students - all immediately ask: when will they learn their forced to memorise noun endings
students - will have an initial acquisition grammar? While that is also another article immediately and up front, they seem to be
of many new words that means (which is addressed in this series) I can very slowly acquired for output in Latin.
something to them in Latin, words like: offer one comment. As students acquire The good news is that despite that slow
sella, surge, i, ad, conside, sume, fer, animal, the language, they will ask questions about uptake, noun endings do not seem to
canis, feles, ursa, da, sacculus, quis, vult, habere, things they notice. These noticed things hinder listening and reading
graphidum, calamus, charta, liber, et al. will be the grammar that we would comprehension. Since our job is to
Offered as understandable messages in otherwise be teaching them though not continuously give them understandable
Latin, these words will not be forgotten. with the symmetry or ease of explicit input (listening and reading) they will be
40 Comprehensible Input and Krashen’s theory
https://doi.org/10.1017/S2058631019000060 Published online by Cambridge University Press
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