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                                                      Interdisciplinary branches of linguistics pdf
    The definition of linguistics. Linguistics is the language study. Linguistics deals with human language as a universal and recognizable part of human behavior and of human abilities. Raja T. Nasr (1984). Linguistics is competence as a person who can speak a language, and his or her linguistics
    performance as the realization of that potential. Monica Crabtree & Joyce Powers (1994). Sections of the linguistics 1. General language generally describes the concepts and categories in a particular language or between all languages. It also provides analyzed theory of language. Descriptive linguistic
    describes or provides data to confirm or refute the theory of specific languages explained in general. 2. Micro language is narrower view. It is about the internal view of the language itself (structure of language systems) without having anything to do with other sciences and without it being about how it
    should be used in everyday life. Some areas of micro linguistic: a. Phonetics, the study of the physical properties of sounds of human language b. Phonology, the study of sounds as discrete, abstract elements of the speaker's mind that distinguish meaning c. Morphology, the study of internal structures of
    words and how they can be changed d. Syntax, the study of how words are combined to form grammatical sentences e. Semantics, the study of the meaning of words (lexicical semantics) and fixed word combinations (fraseology), and how these combine to form meanings of sentences f. Pragmatism, the
    study of how utterances are used (literally, figuratively, or otherwise) in communicative actions g. Discourse analysis, analysis of language in texts (spoken, written or signed) h. Used linguistically, the linguistic branch is most concerned with the use of the concepts in everyday life, including language
    teaching. 3. The macro language is the broadest language point of view. It concerns the external view of the language itself, relating to other sciences, and how it should be applied in everyday life. Some areas of micro linguistic: a. Stylistic, the study of linguistic factors that place a discourse in context. B.
    Developmental linguistics, the study of the development of language skills in a person, especially the acquisition of language in childhood. c. Historical linguistics or diachary linguistics, the study of language change. d. Language geography, the study of spatial patterns of languages. E. Evolutionary
    linguistics, the study of the origin of language and subsequent development. F. Psycholinguistics, the study of the cognitive processes and representations underlying language use. G. Sociolinguation, the study of social patterns and norms of linguistic variation. H. Clinical linguistics, application of
    language theory in the field of speech pathology. i. Neurolinguistics, the study of brain networks that underlie grammar and communication. J. Biolingleuristik, the study of natural as well as human-trained communication systems in compared to human language. Computational linguistics, the study of
    computational implementations of linguistic structures. Source : essencial of linguistics scince raja t nasr. (1984) language files, monica crabtree & joyce powers (1994) Branches of Linguistics: The Branches Of Linguistics Subfields of linguistics:-Computationals: is a multidisciplinary field dealing with
    statistical and/or rules-based modelling of natural language from a calculation perspective. This modelling is not limited to a specific linguistic area. Traditionally, computer linguistics was usually performed by computer scientists who specialized in the use of computers to process natural language. Recent
    research has shown that human language is much more complex than previously thought, so computer linguists often work as members of multidisciplinary teams, including linguists (specially trained in linguistics), language experts (people with a certain level of abilities in the languages relevant to a
    given project), and computer scientists. Computer linguistics draws on the involvement of linguists, computer scientists, experts in artificial intelligence, cognitive psychologists, mathematicians and logicians, among others. Comparative linguistics: Comparative (initially comparative philology) is a branch of
    historical linguistics that deals with comparing languages to establish their historical context. Language may be related to convergence through borrowing or genetic descent. Genetically related substances involve a common origin or proto-language, and comparative linguistics is intended to construct
    language families, to reconstruct protolanguages and to specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear distinction between certified and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. Dialectology:
    Dialectology is a sub-area of linguistics, the scientific study of linguistic dialect. It studies variations in languages based primarily on geographical distribution and their associated characteristics (as opposed to variations based on social factors studied in sociolinguianism, or variations based on time
    studied in historical linguistics). Dialectology treats subjects such as divergence of two local dialects from a common ancestor and synchronous variation. Dialectologists are ultimately concerned with grammatical traits similar to regional areas. They are thus usually concerned with populations living in
    their areas for generations without relocating, but also with immigrant groups who bring their language to new settlements. Etymology: Etymology is the study of the history of words - when they entered a language from which source and how their form and meaning have changed over time. In languages
    with a long written history, etymology makes use of philology, study how words change from culture to culture over time. However, etymologists also use the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages that are too old for direct information (e.g. writing) to be known. By
    analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences about their common overall language and its vocabulary. In this way, word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to, for example, the word. Although etymological research
    originally grew from the philological tradition, today much etymological research is done in language families where little or no early evidence is available, such as Urals and Austronesian. Historical linguistics Historical linguistics (also diachronic linguistics) is the study of language squabbling. It has five
    main problems: to describe and explain observed changes in certain languages*; *to reconstruct the prehistory of languages and determine their relationship to their relationships and group them into language families (comparative languages); to develop general theories on how and why language
    changes* to describe the history of speech societies*; * to study the history of words, ie etymology. History and development Modern historical linguistics dates from the late 1700s and grew out of the former discipline of philology, the study of ancient texts and documents dating back to antiquity. Initially,
    linguistics was comparative linguistics and mainly concerned with the establishment of language families and the reconstruction of prehistoric languages using the comparative method and internal reconstruction. The focus was on the well-known Indo-European languages, many of which had long written
    stories. Since then, however, considerable comparative linguistic work has been carried out in the Uralic languages, Austronesian languages and various families of Native American languages, among many others. However, comparativeism is now only part of a more widely conceived discipline of
    historical linguistics. For the Indo-European languages, comparative study is now a highly specialised field and research is mostly carried out into the subsequent development of these languages, in particular the development of modern standard varieties. Evolution in other fields Originally all modern
    linguistics were historical in orientation - even the study of modern dialects involved looking at their origins. But Saussure distinguished between synchronous and diachic linguistics, which is fundamental to the current organization of discipline. Primacy is given to synchronous linguistics, and diachronic
   linguistics is defined as the study of successive synchronous phases. However, the clear demarcation of Saussure is now seen as idealised. In practice, a purely synchronous linguistic is not possible for any period of time before the invention of gramophone: written records always lag behind speech in
   reflecting language developments, and in any case are difficult to date accurately before the development of the modern title page. Sociolingviists' work on linguistic variation has also shown that synchronic states are not uniform: the speech habits of older and younger speakers differ in ways that point to
   language change. Synchronous variation is linguistic change in progress. The biological origin of the language is, in principle, a matter for historical linguistics, but most linguists consider it too distant to be reliably established using historical linguistic techniques such as the use of linguistics. Less
   standard techniques, such as mass lexicical comparison, are used by some linguists to overcome the limitations of the comparative method, but most linguists regard them as unreliable. The results of historical linguistics are often used as a basis for hypotheses about population and movements,
   especially during the prehistoric period. In practice, however, it is often unclear how to integrate the linguistic evidence with the archaeological or genetic evidence. For example, there are a variety of theories about the homeland of proto-Indo-Europeans and early movements, each with their own
   interpretation of the archaeological record. Interlinguistics: Interlinguistics is the study of various aspects of international communication. This may include, for example, changes in languages related to contacts between two or more languages. For the most part, however, interlinguistics refer to research
   into the possibilities of optimising international communication, which usually involves international auxiliary languages or IAl's. While interlinguistics may include the study of existing IALs, its purpose is generally to develop a new one. The International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA), which
   developed Interlingua, is an example of an interlinguistic research body. The international delegation that developed Ido also dealt with interlinguistic research. Grammar: Grammar is the study of the rules governing the use of a particular natural language, and as such a linguistic area. Traditional
   grammar included morphology and syntax, in modern linguistics commonly expanded by subfields of phonics, phonology, orthography, semantics, and pragmatism. The same term is also applied to any set of such rules; thus, each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar. Thus, English
   grammar (innumerable) refers to the rules of the English language itself, while an English grammar (countable) refers to a specific study or analysis of these rules. A fully explicit grammar exhaustively describes the grammatical constructions of a langauge called a prescriptive grammar, or in theoretical
   linguistics, a generative grammar. Specific types of grammars, or approaches to constructing them, are known as grammatical frameworks. The default frame for grammar is the transformative grammar model developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s to 1980s. Lexicology: Lexicology (from
   encyclopedias, in the bed-fox lexicon) is that part of linguistics, which studies words, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relationships between words (semantic relationships), word groups and the whole lexicon. The term first appeared in the 1820s, although there were lexicologists of equal
   importance, even before that. Computational encyclopedia as a related area (in the same way that computational linguistics is related to linguistics) deals with computational examination of dictionaries and their contents. An allied science for lexicology is lexicography, which also studies words in relation
   to dictionaries - it is actually about including words in dictionaries and from this perspective with the whole lexicon. Therefore lexicography is the theory and practice of composing dictionaries. Sometimes lexicography is considered to be part or a branch of lexicology, but the two disciplines should not be
   mistaken: lexicographers are the people who write dictionaries, they are at the same time lexicologists too, but not all lexicologists are lexicographers! It is said that lexicology is the practical lexicology, it is practically oriented although it has its own theory, while pure lexicology is mainly theoretical.
   Language typology: Linguistic typology is an international peer-reviewed journal in linguistic typology, founded in 1997. It is published by Mouton de Gruyter on behalf of the Association for Linguistic Typology. The editor-in-chief is Prof. Frans Plank (University of Konstanz). The magazine is available
   online by subscription through the publisher's and Atypon Link's website. Morphology: Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. (Words as entities in the lexicon are subject to lexicology.) While words are commonly accepted as being (with klclit) the smallest units of
   syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words may be related to other words of rules. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog, dog and dog-catcher are closely related. English speakers recognize these relationships from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation
   in English. They intuit that dogs are to dogs as cats are to cats; like dog is that dog-catcher as the dish is to dishwasher. The rules understood by the speaker reflect specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed by smaller entities and how these smaller entities interact in speech. In this
   way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and tries to formulate rules that model knowledge of the speakers of those languages. Phonics: Phonics (from the Greek φωνς, phone means 'sound, voice') is the study of the sound of human
   speech. It deals with the actual of speech sounds (phones), and their production, audition and perception, while the phonology that arose from it, studies sound systems and abstract audio devices (such as phonemes and distinctiveness). Phonetics deal with the sounds themselves rather than the
   contexts in which they are used in language. Opinion discussions (semantics) do not enter this level of linguistic analysis. Phonics has three main branches: * articulating phonics, dealing with the positions and movements of the lips, tongue, vocal tract and creases and other speech organs in the
   production of speech; * acoustic phonics, dealing with the properties of sound waves and how they are received by the inner ear; and * auditory phonics, dealing with speech perception, primarily how the brain forms perceptual representations of the input it receives. There are over a hundred different
   phones recognized as distinctive by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) and transcribed in their international phonetic alphabet. Phonics was studied as early as 2,500 years ago in ancient India, with Pāṇṇṇini's account of the place of the consonant and articulation in his 5th century. The great
   Indian alphabets today, except Tamil scripture, order their consonants according to Pāṇṇini's classification. Phonology: Phonology (Greek φωνς (phōnē), voice, sound + λάγος (lógos), words, speech, discussion topic), is a subsetic of linguistics that studies the sound system of a particular language (or
   language). While phonics is about the physical production and perception of speech sounds, phonology describes the way sounds work within a given language or across languages. An important part of phonology is to study which sounds are characteristic devices within a language. In English, for
   example, /p/ and /b/ are characteristic units of sound, (i.e. they are phonemes/ difference is phonem, or phonematic). This can be seen from minimal pairs like pin and bin, which means different things, but differs only in one sound. On the other hand, /p/ is often pronounced differently depending on its
   position compared to other sounds, but these different pronunciations are still considered by native speakers to be the same sound. For example, /p/ in pin is aspirated, while the same phone call in spin is not. In some other languages, for example Thai and Quechua, the same difference in aspiration or
   non-aspiration does not differentiate phonemes. In addition to the minimal meaningful sounds (phonemes), phonology studies, how sounds alternate, such as /p/in English described above, and topics such as syllable structure, stress, accent, and intonation. The principles of phonological theory have also
   been used for the analysis of sign language, although the phonologic units are not acoustic. The principles of phonology, and for that matter, language, are independent of modality, because they derive from an abstract and co-infested Pragmatism: Pragmatism is the study of the ability of natural language
   speakers to communicate more than explicitly stated. The ability to understand the intended meaning of another speaker is called pragmatic competence. A utteration describing pragmatic function is described as metapragmatic. One thing we can add is that pragmatism is about how we achieve our goals
   in communication. Suppose we want to ask someone next to us to stop smoking. We can achieve this objective by means of several opinions. We can say, stop smoking, thank you!, which is direct. We can also say in an indirect way, like sir, this room has air conditioning. In this way, we want the smoker
   to understand that he or she is not allowed to smoke in an air-conditioned room. Pragmatism is considered one of the most challenging aspects for language learners to understand, and can only truly be learned with experience. Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics or psychology language is the study of
   the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use and understand language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, largely due to a lack of coherent data on how the human brain worked. Modern research makes use of biology,
   neuroscience, cognitive science, and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of subdisciplines. for example, as non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological functions of the brain are becoming more and more common, neurolinguistics have become an
   area in themselves. Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that allow it to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand expression texts, words, text, etc. Developmental
   psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language. Semantics: Semantics (Greek sēmanti***, giving characters, significant, seebma symptomatic meaning, from sēma (σςμα), characters) refers to aspects of meaning, as expressed in language or other systems of characters. Semantics contrasts
   with syntax, which is the study of the structure of character systems (focusing on the shape, not meaning). Related to semantics is the field of pragmatism, which studies the practical use of characters by agents or communities of interpretation in particular circumstances and contexts. [1] By the usual
   convention, which calls a study or a theory by the name of its subject, semantics can also denote the theoretical study of the meaning in systems of characters. Semanticists generally recognize two kinds of meaning that an expression (such as the phrase John ate a bagel) can have: (1) the relationship
   that the expression, divided into its constituents (characters), has to things and situations in the real world as well as possible worlds, and (2) the relationship the characters have to other characters, such as the kind of mental signs that are conceived by Concepts. Most toretics refer to the relationship
   between a character and its objects, as always with regard to any kind of objective reference, as its name. Some theories refer to the relationship between a character and the characters that serve in its practical interpretation as its connotation, but there are many more differences of opinion and
   differences in theory that are made in this case. Many toreticists, especially in the formal semantic, pragmatic and semiotic traditions, limit the use of semantics to the desensual aspect, using other terms or completely ignoring the connotative aspect. Sociolingelandide: Sociolinguistics is the study of the
   effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations and context in the way language is used. Sociolinguistics overlap greatly with pragmatism. It also studies how the lessons differ from group to group separated by certain social variables, such as the number of people who are
   in the labour market. Since the use of a language varies from place to place (dialect), the language varies between social classes, and it is these sociolects that study sociolinguistics. The social aspects of language were first studied in the modern sense by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and
   also by Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation for language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th century. Sociolinguistics in the west first appeared in the 1960s
   and were pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in Britain. Syntax is the study of language structure and order of words. It is about the relationship between units at the level of words or morphology. Syntax seeks to delineate exactly all and only the phrases that make
   up a given language, using native language intuition. Syntax seeks to formally describe how structural relationships between elements (lexicical elements/words and operators) in a sentence contribute to its interpretation. Syntax uses the principles of formula logic and Set Theory to formalize and
   accurately represent the hierarchical relationship between elements of a sentence. Abstract synths are often used to illustrate the hierarchical structures that are postulated. Thus, in active declarative phrases in English the subject is followed by the main verb, which in turn is followed by the object (SVO).
   This sequence of elements is essential to its correct interpretation, and it is precisely this that synttactic is trying to capture. They argue that there must be such a formal calculation component contained in the faculty of languages by normal speakers of a language and seek to describe it. Branches of
   linguistics What do you see as some of the of the following branches of linguistics that help to improve the teaching of English in your local environment? 1) Phonetics Definition the study of the physical aspect of sounds of linguistic importance The meaning of accuracy in the pronunciation of individual
   sounds and also significant consonant cluster which separates / postpone, understand, salmon. For example: in class, the child will get to learn to speak standard English, which helps them socially in the future. Remedy teacher models, child repeats, child learns to sound words like /bit/ and / bi:t / 2)
   Syntax Definition the study of how words are combined to form grammatical sentences Meaning Grammar ensures that the message is not distorted E.G.: - I do not know who is he; Do this too can - double negatives - I do not want any carrot. By correcting the child on the error of double negatives, the
   student will then be able to form understandable utterances and not create confusion for listeners. Also by learning syntax, students learn verb meaning. Remedy through reading and speaking in standard English, models teach the correct grammar use. 3) Semantics Definition the study of the meaning of
   words and fixed word combinations and how these are combined to form the meaning of sentences Meaning Knowledge of the correct meanings of words helps the message to be conveyed correctly (return, chronically, pamper) Remedy Teacher provides great vocabulary library for children, so it would
   be easier for students to learn synonyms and antonyms, which allow the language to be more creative and descriptive. 4) Phonology Definition the study of patterns of language sounds Meaning 1)teaching in phonology helps students to facilitate comparison with other languages. 2) helping children
   understand certain rules like /h/ is never formulated (high, through) 3) promoting phonological awareness will teach the child to recognize similar words easily and quickly and sound unknown words Remedy-share texts with adults, teacher reads aloud stories, students follow. 5) Morphology Definition-
   study of internal structure of words, how they are formed and combined to form other words. Meaning -Children will associate the meaning of a compound word with the component words and understand how time changes the formation/reduction of certain words and use the correct kinds of words when
   the situation requires. Eg: (black board = black piece thing that the teacher writes about) - good and clear advantage of larger vocab size-able to understand that certain clipped expressions are used in everyday life. (like net - clipping of the word internet) 6) Pragmatics Definition study of how utteration is
   used in communicative actions Meaning-knowledge of the intended speaker meaning promotes sensitivity and minimizes miscommunication. -students are also made aware of the conversation structure that teaches them how to notice pitch and tone signals E.g.: I haven't done/it'-> rising tone signals a
   question instead of a statement. Statement.
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