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acta slavica iaponica tomus 27 pp 103123 education and diasporic language the case of koreans in kazakhstan german kim introduction the language of the korean diaspora in kazakhstan and other ...

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                                                    Acta Slavica Iaponica, Tomus 27, pp. 103‒123
                          Education and Diasporic Language:
                          The Case of Koreans in Kazakhstan
                                             German Kim
                                              IntroductIon
                   The language of the Korean Diaspora in Kazakhstan and other states in 
              the post-Soviet space is radically different from the literary languages of South 
              and North Koreas.  During the more than 140-year-long residence of Koreans 
              in the dominating Russian language environment there appeared Koryo mar 
              – the language of the Korean Diaspora based on two patois of the North Ham-
              gyong dialect.  As is known, Korean settlers moved to the Russian Primor’ye 
              mostly from the border between Russia and North Hamgyong Province, and 
              therefore the language they spoke was a dialect used in everyday life.  At the 
              same time, from the prerevolutionary period until the collapse of the Soviet 
              Union, the Korean language close to the North Korean standard language was 
              taught in the school and university education system.  After the establishment 
              of  diplomatic relations between the Republic of Korea and the post-Soviet 
              states and the development of trade – economic and cultural – educational ties 
              of the North Korean variant gave place to the South Korean literary language.  
              At present, in all schools and universities in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Rus-
              sia, the Seoul standard language is taught, textbooks and dictionaries compiled 
              in South Korea are used, and teachers who are native speakers of the language 
              are assigned from the Republic of Korea. 
                   The aim of the present paper is an analysis of interrelations of issues re-
              lated to Korean language teaching and the preservation of the diasporic lan-
              guage, Koryo mar, among the Koreans of Kazakhstan.  It is also necessary to 
              determine the main stages of the history of Korean language teaching, reveal 
              its basic content, investigate aspects of the Korean language functioning after 
              the deportation of Koreans from the Far East to Central Asia, and forecast pros-
              pects for the preservation and development of the native language among the 
              Korean Diaspora of modern Kazakhstan. 
                   Koryo mar has attracted the attention of a number of linguists in the So-
              viet Union and abroad; however, it has not so far been properly and compre-
              hensively studied.  Certain aspects of Koryo mar are described in the works of 
              O. M. Kim, R. P. King, Kho Song Moo, Kwak Chung Gu, and N. S. Pak, who 
              used in their research written sources published in Korean and Russian from 
              the end of the nineteenth to the beginning of the twentieth century as well as 
                                                                             1
              recordings of Yukchin and Myenchon-Kilchu dialect speakers.
                 1  Ким О.М. О Языке корейцев СССР // Ученые записки Ташкентского Средне-Азиатс-
                                                   103
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Acta Slavica Iaponica
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              For a number of years, R. King researched Korean dialects, especially 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     those of the Northern provinces from which most of the ancestors of Soviet 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Koreans had come.  In King’s opinion, the archaic and dialectal elements of 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     the phonology, morphology, and lexis of the Korean language are most clearly 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     observed and widely preserved in the speech of the Koryo saram.2  This is a 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     legacy of the long isolation of the inhabitants of the northern Korean provinces 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     and the subsequent isolation of the Korean settlers in Russia from the influ-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     ences of the standard literary Korean language under development.  King’s 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     research is based on a wealth of oral materials collected in the course of several 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     periods of field work among the Koryo saram and a magnificent knowledge of 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Russian prerevolutionary sources on the Korean language. 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              The ethno- and sociolinguistic processes among soviet Koreans have be-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     come the subject of a special body of studies.  H. Haarmann, a well-known so-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     ciolinguist and the author of more than a dozen books on bilinguistic problems 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     in multiracial nations, subjected data from the 1970 census to computer analy-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     sis and observed some aspects of Korean-Russian bilingualism.  Haarmann’s 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     book comprises three chapters, which address in turn the general conditions 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     for polyglotism among the Koreans in the Soviet Union, the bilingual and poly-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     glot communicative structures of the Koreans, and the main typical features of 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     the language behavior of the Korean settlers.  Unfortunately, Haarmann did 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     not use census data from 1959 or 1979, which denied him the opportunity to 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     observe the bilingual processes of soviet Koreans and dynamics for that twen-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     ty-year period.3
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              The functioning of minority languages, Russian-Korean bilingualism, and 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     the problems of linguistic assimilation of soviet Koreans are of great interest to 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     South Korean slavicist Hur Seung-chul, I. Yugay from Tashkent, and G. Kim 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        4
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     and S. Son in Almaty.
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         4  ����аа���� ��. Этносоциологическое изучение языковых процессов среди корейцев Узбек-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  ской ССР // Полевые исследования Института Этнографии. М.�� ������ Hur�ur,��, Seung-Chul,�Seung-Chul,Seungeung--Chul,-�Chul,Chulhul,, ��
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  viet Koreans,Koreans,Koreans,,�������� T�e ���ournalournaournall ooooo���������� SlaSlaSlaSlaSlaSlaSla�������i�i�i�i�i�ii�� StudieStudieStudieStudieStudieStudieStudieStudieStudie��������� �� ����Seouleoul��eoul��,,  ����������, pppp.pp.pp... 123–139;��123–139;123–139; 22��������������                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Сон С.�. Социо-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  лингвистический анализ функционирования коре мар и русского языка в корейской 
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              104
                                               German Kim
                   Practical issues of Korean language teaching, namely compilation of a cur-
              riculum, writing textbooks and dictionaries, training of language teachers, and 
              other issues have been covered in numerous academic papers, publications in 
              journals and newspapers�� collections of presentations at scientific conferences�� 
              and also in books and dissertations.  Therefore, the authors are mostly Korean 
              language teachers, linguists, journalists, and leaders of the Korean Diaspora in 
              the post-Soviet states including Kazakhstan.  
                   The present paper is based on all available sources including archival 
              documents, census data, and published research papers of other scholars.  An 
              analysis of the interrelations between Korean language teaching and the lan-
              guage of the Korean Diaspora of Kazakhstan is preceded by a short excursus 
              into the history of the first Koreans settlers in �entral �sia.  
               outlIne of Korean dIasporIc HIstory In russIa and tHe sovIet unIon 
                   �uring the decline of the �hoson �ynasty ����2 to ���0��� Korea was un-
              prepared to enter the era of capitalism.  For nearly a century�� Western and �apa-
              nese colonial claims aggravated its protracted political, social, and economic 
              crises.  �n ��0��� after its �ictory o�er Russia in the Russo-�apanese War�� �apan de-
              clared the Korean peninsula its protectorate�� annexing it fi�e years later.  Mass 
              impoverishment and starvation among Korean peasants compelled many to 
                                5
              flee the peninsula.
                   The first Korean immigrants appeared in the Russian Far East during the 
              late ���0s and early ���0s.  The Russian administration used these Koreans 
              to populate and de�elop this territory.  �n the ���0s and ���0s�� the Koreans 
              received the right to register as citizens of the Russian Empire under the terms of 
              a Russo-Korean treaty determining their status.  The number of Korean immi-
              grants to the area grew by the thousands, with many taking the sea route 
              from Pusan to Vladivostok and others, the overland route across the River 
              Tumangan.
                   Some Koreans found other routes to Russian territory that took them 
              through Chinese territory.  The number of Koreans increased in the prerevolu-
              tionary period from se�eral dozen to some ����000 by ����.  The Koreans initial-
              ly lived in separate villages, and their daily life, social relations, ethnic culture, 
              and language were almost the same as in Korea.  The October Revolution 
              of 1917 united workers of all ethnic groups with its slogans of justice, freedom, 
              and equal rights.  Koreans largely supported the Soviet cause, with hundreds 
                   диаспоре Казахстана. Автореферат кандидатской диссертации.. АлматыАлматыАлматы������ ������������������ Ким 
                   Г.Н. Об истории принудительно-добровольного забвения «родного» языка постсо-
                   ветскими корейцами �на примере Казахстана� // Диаспора �Москва�.. 200200200200����..... ������o.o.o.o. o.o. ����.��...... С.С.С.С.С.С.СС.С.. .
                   ��0����..  
                 �  Kim��Kim���� ����ermanerman ermanerman ����....�������� ����KoreKoreKore Kore ����aramaramaram aram ororor or KoreansKoreansKoreans Koreans ofofof of thethethe the FormerFormerFormer Former ����oooo����ietietiet iet ����nionnionnion nion ininin in thethethe the PastPastPast Past andandand and Pres-Pres-PresPres--
                   ent,�� Amerasia Journal (СС������� 29:3 �200200��...���.20.20.20���������, pp.pp.pp.pp.pp.. 14–19. 14–19.14–19.���������������...
                                                   105
                                            Acta Slavica Iaponica
               sacrificing their li�es in World War ���� belie�ing this would help lead to the lib-
               eration of Korea.�
                    �y the ���0s�� the Koreans of the �o�iet Far East had established their own 
               identity, culture, and traditions.  There were hundreds of Korean agricultural 
               and fishing kolk�oze�; Koreans were actively involved in government and so-
               cial organizations; traditional culture was maintained and developed; the Ko-
               rean intelligentsia grew in number and quality; and Korean theaters and other 
               educational and cultural institutions were established.  In the soviet Far East, 
               there were hundreds of Korean schools and other educational establishments 
               with Korean being the language of instruction.  Newspapers and magazines 
               were published in Korean; there was a Korean theater and numerous ama-
               teurs’ groups.  The Korean language functioned in many spheres of life: it was 
               used by the community, families, and in the everyday communication of the 
                                            7
               compactly residing Koreans.   The Koreans were sovietized and integrated 
               into the new political and socioeconomic system. 
                    The Koreans were the first people of the �o�iet �nion to be deported.  
               Top secret order number ��2���2�cc of the �o�iet go�ernment and �ommunist 
               Party�� �On the �eportation of the Korean Population of the Far East���� dated 
               August 21, 1937 and signed by Molotov and Stalin, was a logical continua-
               tion of earlier Tsarist and Soviet policies relating to national minority popula-
               tions.  The Koreans settled in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, established the basis 
               for a new life, and contributed to the development of agriculture in these new 
               places. 
                    Shortly after the arrival of the deported Koreans in Kazakhstan was pub-
               lished a resolution of the �entral �ommittee of the �ommunist Party �On Re-
               organization of the Ethnic Minorities’ �chools�� ��anuary 2��� ������� which was 
               duplicated by a resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of 
               Kazakhstan under the same title number�� ����0�� of �pril ��� ����.  �t said�� 
                    The Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan considers it to 
                    be well established that some bourgeois nationalists have actively operated in 
                    the organs of people’s education of Kazakhstan and created special national 
                    schools ��erman�� �ulgarian�� Korean�� �yghur�� and others� and transformed 
                    them into sources of bourgeois-nationalistic�� anti-�o�iet influence on the chil-
                    dren.  It has been extremely harmful to the cause of the proper training and 
                    education, it has separated our children from Soviet life, deprived them of 
                    the possibility of becoming closer to Soviet culture and science, and put ob-
                    stacles in their way to further education in colleges and higher educational 
                    establishments. 
                  �  �erman Kim�� Hanin imin yok�a ��eoul� Park �onsa�� 200��.
                  7  Ким Ким СС��н н ����а.а. Очерки по истории советских корейцев. Алма-Ата� Наука�� ������ Пак 
                    Б.Д. Корейцы в советской России. M.-ИркутскM.-Иркутск.-Иркутск������ ������������������ Пак Б.Д..������ БББ������ааа������ Н.Н.Н.���... ��0 лет Рос-
                    сии. Очерк истории российских корейцев. М.�.� РАНРАНРАН ���RussianRussianRussiaRussiann ������cademycademcademycademycademycademyy  ofofofoofofofoff  ����������ciencesciencesciences���ciencesciencesciencesciencesciencesciencesciences������������������������������ 
                    2004. 
                                                     106
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